msgid "" msgstr "" "Project-Id-Version: Comprehensive Rust 🦀\n" "POT-Creation-Date: \n" "PO-Revision-Date: \n" "Last-Translator: \n" "Language-Team: \n" "Language: da\n" "MIME-Version: 1.0\n" "Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8\n" "Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit\n" "Plural-Forms: nplurals=2; plural=(n != 1);\n" #: src/SUMMARY.md:4 src/index.md:1 msgid "Welcome to Comprehensive Rust 🦀" msgstr "Velkommen til Comprehensive Rust 🦀" #: src/SUMMARY.md:5 src/running-the-course.md:1 msgid "Running the Course" msgstr "Afvikling af kurset" #: src/SUMMARY.md:6 src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:1 msgid "Course Structure" msgstr "Kursets struktur" #: src/SUMMARY.md:7 src/running-the-course/keyboard-shortcuts.md:1 msgid "Keyboard Shortcuts" msgstr "Genvejstaster" #: src/SUMMARY.md:8 src/running-the-course/translations.md:1 msgid "Translations" msgstr "Oversættelser" #: src/SUMMARY.md:9 src/cargo.md:1 msgid "Using Cargo" msgstr "Brug af Cargo" #: src/SUMMARY.md:10 msgid "Rust Ecosystem" msgstr "Rust's økosystem" #: src/SUMMARY.md:11 msgid "Code Samples" msgstr "Kodeeksempler" #: src/SUMMARY.md:12 msgid "Running Cargo Locally" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:15 msgid "Day 1: Morning" msgstr "Dag 1: Formiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:19 src/SUMMARY.md:76 src/SUMMARY.md:130 src/SUMMARY.md:187 #: src/SUMMARY.md:213 src/SUMMARY.md:263 msgid "Welcome" msgstr "Velkommen" #: src/SUMMARY.md:20 src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:1 msgid "What is Rust?" msgstr "Hvad er Rust?" #: src/SUMMARY.md:21 src/hello-world.md:1 msgid "Hello World!" msgstr "Hej verden!" #: src/SUMMARY.md:22 src/hello-world/small-example.md:1 msgid "Small Example" msgstr "Et little eksempel" #: src/SUMMARY.md:23 src/why-rust.md:1 msgid "Why Rust?" msgstr "Hvorfor bruge Rust?" #: src/SUMMARY.md:24 src/why-rust/compile-time.md:1 msgid "Compile Time Guarantees" msgstr "Garantier før programudføring" #: src/SUMMARY.md:25 src/why-rust/runtime.md:1 msgid "Runtime Guarantees" msgstr "Garantier under programudføring" #: src/SUMMARY.md:26 src/why-rust/modern.md:1 msgid "Modern Features" msgstr "Moderne faciliteter" #: src/SUMMARY.md:27 src/basic-syntax.md:1 msgid "Basic Syntax" msgstr "Grundlæggende syntaks" #: src/SUMMARY.md:28 src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:1 msgid "Scalar Types" msgstr "Skalartyper" #: src/SUMMARY.md:29 src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:1 msgid "Compound Types" msgstr "Sammensatte typer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:30 src/basic-syntax/references.md:1 msgid "References" msgstr "Referencer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:31 src/basic-syntax/references-dangling.md:1 msgid "Dangling References" msgstr "Hængende referencer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:32 src/basic-syntax/slices.md:1 msgid "Slices" msgstr "Arraysegmenter" #: src/SUMMARY.md:33 msgid "String vs str" msgstr "String og str" #: src/SUMMARY.md:34 src/basic-syntax/functions.md:1 msgid "Functions" msgstr "Funktioner" #: src/SUMMARY.md:35 src/basic-syntax/rustdoc.md:1 msgid "Rustdoc" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:36 src/SUMMARY.md:83 src/basic-syntax/methods.md:1 #: src/methods.md:1 msgid "Methods" msgstr "Metoder" #: src/SUMMARY.md:37 msgid "Overloading" msgstr "Funktionsoverlæsning" #: src/SUMMARY.md:38 src/SUMMARY.md:67 src/SUMMARY.md:91 src/SUMMARY.md:121 #: src/SUMMARY.md:150 src/SUMMARY.md:179 src/SUMMARY.md:206 src/SUMMARY.md:227 #: src/SUMMARY.md:255 src/SUMMARY.md:277 src/SUMMARY.md:298 #: src/exercises/android/morning.md:1 src/exercises/bare-metal/morning.md:1 #: src/exercises/bare-metal/afternoon.md:1 #: src/exercises/concurrency/morning.md:1 #: src/exercises/concurrency/afternoon.md:1 msgid "Exercises" msgstr "Øvelser" #: src/SUMMARY.md:39 src/exercises/day-1/implicit-conversions.md:1 msgid "Implicit Conversions" msgstr "Implicitte konverteringer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:40 msgid "Arrays and for Loops" msgstr "Arrays og for-løkker" #: src/SUMMARY.md:42 msgid "Day 1: Afternoon" msgstr "Dag 1: Eftermiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:44 src/basic-syntax/variables.md:1 msgid "Variables" msgstr "Variabler" #: src/SUMMARY.md:45 src/basic-syntax/type-inference.md:1 msgid "Type Inference" msgstr "Typeudledning" #: src/SUMMARY.md:46 msgid "static & const" msgstr "static & const" #: src/SUMMARY.md:47 src/basic-syntax/scopes-shadowing.md:1 msgid "Scopes and Shadowing" msgstr "Virkefelt og overskyggede variabler" #: src/SUMMARY.md:48 src/memory-management.md:1 msgid "Memory Management" msgstr "Håndtering af hukommelse" #: src/SUMMARY.md:49 msgid "Stack vs Heap" msgstr "Stak og heap" #: src/SUMMARY.md:50 msgid "Stack Memory" msgstr "Stakhukommelse" #: src/SUMMARY.md:51 src/memory-management/manual.md:1 msgid "Manual Memory Management" msgstr "Manuel hukommelseshåndtering" #: src/SUMMARY.md:52 src/memory-management/scope-based.md:1 msgid "Scope-Based Memory Management" msgstr "Hukommelseshåndtering baseret på virkefelt" #: src/SUMMARY.md:53 msgid "Garbage Collection" msgstr "Automatisk hukommelseshåndtering" #: src/SUMMARY.md:54 msgid "Rust Memory Management" msgstr "Hukommelseshåndtering i Rust" #: src/SUMMARY.md:55 src/memory-management/comparison.md:1 msgid "Comparison" msgstr "Sammenligning" #: src/SUMMARY.md:56 src/ownership.md:1 msgid "Ownership" msgstr "Ejerskab" #: src/SUMMARY.md:57 src/ownership/move-semantics.md:1 msgid "Move Semantics" msgstr "Overførselssemantik" #: src/SUMMARY.md:58 src/ownership/moved-strings-rust.md:1 msgid "Moved Strings in Rust" msgstr "Overførte strenge i Rust" #: src/SUMMARY.md:59 msgid "Double Frees in Modern C++" msgstr "Dobbeltfrigivelser i moderne C++" #: src/SUMMARY.md:60 src/ownership/moves-function-calls.md:1 msgid "Moves in Function Calls" msgstr "Overførsel af ejerskab i funktionskald" #: src/SUMMARY.md:61 src/ownership/copy-clone.md:1 msgid "Copying and Cloning" msgstr "Kopiering og kloning" #: src/SUMMARY.md:62 src/ownership/borrowing.md:1 msgid "Borrowing" msgstr "Lån af variabler" #: src/SUMMARY.md:63 src/ownership/shared-unique-borrows.md:1 msgid "Shared and Unique Borrows" msgstr "Delte og unikke lån" #: src/SUMMARY.md:64 src/ownership/lifetimes.md:1 msgid "Lifetimes" msgstr "Livstider" #: src/SUMMARY.md:65 src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:1 msgid "Lifetimes in Function Calls" msgstr "Livstider i funktionskald" #: src/SUMMARY.md:66 src/ownership/lifetimes-data-structures.md:1 msgid "Lifetimes in Data Structures" msgstr "Livstider i datastrukturer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:68 src/exercises/day-1/book-library.md:1 #, fuzzy msgid "Storing Books" msgstr "String og str" #: src/SUMMARY.md:69 src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:1 msgid "Iterators and Ownership" msgstr "Iteratorer og ejerskab" #: src/SUMMARY.md:72 msgid "Day 2: Morning" msgstr "Dag 2: Formiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:77 src/structs.md:1 msgid "Structs" msgstr "Strukturer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:78 src/structs/tuple-structs.md:1 msgid "Tuple Structs" msgstr "Tuple-strukturer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:79 src/structs/field-shorthand.md:1 msgid "Field Shorthand Syntax" msgstr "Forenklet strukturinitialisering" #: src/SUMMARY.md:80 src/enums.md:1 msgid "Enums" msgstr "Enumerationer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:81 src/enums/variant-payloads.md:1 msgid "Variant Payloads" msgstr "Nyttelast i varianter" #: src/SUMMARY.md:82 src/enums/sizes.md:1 msgid "Enum Sizes" msgstr "Størrelse af enumerationer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:84 src/methods/receiver.md:1 msgid "Method Receiver" msgstr "Modtager af funktionskald" #: src/SUMMARY.md:85 src/SUMMARY.md:161 src/SUMMARY.md:276 #: src/methods/example.md:1 src/concurrency/shared_state/example.md:1 msgid "Example" msgstr "Eksempel" #: src/SUMMARY.md:86 src/pattern-matching.md:1 msgid "Pattern Matching" msgstr "Mønstergenkendelse" #: src/SUMMARY.md:87 src/pattern-matching/destructuring-enums.md:1 msgid "Destructuring Enums" msgstr "Dekonstruktion af enumerationer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:88 src/pattern-matching/destructuring-structs.md:1 msgid "Destructuring Structs" msgstr "Dekonstruktion af strukturer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:89 src/pattern-matching/destructuring-arrays.md:1 msgid "Destructuring Arrays" msgstr "Dekonstruktion af arrays" #: src/SUMMARY.md:90 src/pattern-matching/match-guards.md:1 msgid "Match Guards" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:92 src/exercises/day-2/health-statistics.md:1 msgid "Health Statistics" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:93 src/exercises/day-2/solutions-morning.md:3 msgid "Points and Polygons" msgstr "Punkter og polygoner" #: src/SUMMARY.md:95 msgid "Day 2: Afternoon" msgstr "Dag 2: Eftermiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:97 src/SUMMARY.md:290 src/control-flow.md:1 msgid "Control Flow" msgstr "Forgreninger" #: src/SUMMARY.md:98 src/control-flow/blocks.md:1 msgid "Blocks" msgstr "Blokke" #: src/SUMMARY.md:99 msgid "if expressions" msgstr "if udtryk" #: src/SUMMARY.md:100 msgid "if let expressions" msgstr "if let udtryk" #: src/SUMMARY.md:101 msgid "while expressions" msgstr "while udtryk" #: src/SUMMARY.md:102 msgid "while let expressions" msgstr "while let udtryk" #: src/SUMMARY.md:103 msgid "for expressions" msgstr "for udtryk" #: src/SUMMARY.md:104 msgid "loop expressions" msgstr "loop udtryk" #: src/SUMMARY.md:105 msgid "match expressions" msgstr "match udtryk" #: src/SUMMARY.md:106 msgid "break & continue" msgstr "break og continue" #: src/SUMMARY.md:107 src/std.md:1 msgid "Standard Library" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:108 msgid "Option and Result" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:109 src/std/string.md:1 msgid "String" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:110 msgid "Vec" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:111 msgid "HashMap" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:112 msgid "Box" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:113 msgid "Recursive Data Types" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:114 src/std/box-niche.md:1 msgid "Niche Optimization" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:115 msgid "Rc" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:116 msgid "Cell/RefCell" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:117 src/modules.md:1 msgid "Modules" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:118 src/modules/visibility.md:1 msgid "Visibility" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:119 src/modules/paths.md:1 msgid "Paths" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:120 src/modules/filesystem.md:1 msgid "Filesystem Hierarchy" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:122 src/exercises/day-2/luhn.md:1 #: src/exercises/day-2/solutions-afternoon.md:3 msgid "Luhn Algorithm" msgstr "Luhn-algorithmen" #: src/SUMMARY.md:123 src/exercises/day-2/strings-iterators.md:1 #: src/exercises/day-2/solutions-afternoon.md:97 msgid "Strings and Iterators" msgstr "Strenge og iteratorer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:126 msgid "Day 3: Morning" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:131 src/generics.md:1 msgid "Generics" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:132 src/generics/data-types.md:1 msgid "Generic Data Types" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:133 src/generics/methods.md:1 msgid "Generic Methods" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:134 src/generics/monomorphization.md:1 msgid "Monomorphization" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:135 src/traits.md:1 msgid "Traits" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:136 src/traits/trait-objects.md:1 msgid "Trait Objects" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:137 src/traits/deriving-traits.md:1 msgid "Deriving Traits" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:138 src/traits/default-methods.md:1 msgid "Default Methods" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:139 src/traits/trait-bounds.md:1 msgid "Trait Bounds" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:140 msgid "impl Trait" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:141 src/traits/important-traits.md:1 msgid "Important Traits" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:142 msgid "Iterator" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:143 src/traits/from-iterator.md:1 msgid "FromIterator" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:144 msgid "From and Into" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:145 msgid "Read and Write" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:146 msgid "Drop" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:147 msgid "Default" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:148 msgid "Operators: Add, Mul, ..." msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:149 msgid "Closures: Fn, FnMut, FnOnce" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:151 src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:1 #: src/exercises/day-3/solutions-morning.md:3 msgid "A Simple GUI Library" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:153 msgid "Day 3: Afternoon" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:155 src/error-handling.md:1 msgid "Error Handling" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:156 src/error-handling/panics.md:1 msgid "Panics" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:157 msgid "Catching Stack Unwinding" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:158 msgid "Structured Error Handling" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:159 msgid "Propagating Errors with ?" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:160 src/error-handling/converting-error-types.md:1 #: src/error-handling/converting-error-types-example.md:1 msgid "Converting Error Types" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:162 src/error-handling/deriving-error-enums.md:1 msgid "Deriving Error Enums" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:163 src/error-handling/dynamic-errors.md:1 msgid "Dynamic Error Types" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:164 src/error-handling/error-contexts.md:1 msgid "Adding Context to Errors" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:165 src/testing.md:1 msgid "Testing" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:166 src/testing/unit-tests.md:1 msgid "Unit Tests" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:167 src/testing/test-modules.md:1 msgid "Test Modules" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:168 src/testing/doc-tests.md:1 msgid "Documentation Tests" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:169 src/testing/integration-tests.md:1 msgid "Integration Tests" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:170 src/bare-metal/useful-crates.md:1 msgid "Useful crates" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:171 src/unsafe.md:1 msgid "Unsafe Rust" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:172 src/unsafe/raw-pointers.md:1 msgid "Dereferencing Raw Pointers" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:173 src/unsafe/mutable-static-variables.md:1 msgid "Mutable Static Variables" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:174 src/unsafe/unions.md:1 msgid "Unions" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:175 src/unsafe/calling-unsafe-functions.md:1 msgid "Calling Unsafe Functions" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:176 src/unsafe/writing-unsafe-functions.md:1 msgid "Writing Unsafe Functions" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:177 msgid "Extern Functions" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:178 src/unsafe/unsafe-traits.md:1 msgid "Implementing Unsafe Traits" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:180 src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:1 #: src/exercises/day-3/solutions-afternoon.md:3 msgid "Safe FFI Wrapper" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:183 src/SUMMARY.md:253 #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:16 src/bare-metal/android.md:1 msgid "Android" msgstr "Android" #: src/SUMMARY.md:188 src/android/setup.md:1 msgid "Setup" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:189 src/android/build-rules.md:1 msgid "Build Rules" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:190 msgid "Binary" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:191 msgid "Library" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:192 src/android/aidl.md:1 msgid "AIDL" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:193 msgid "Interface" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:194 msgid "Implementation" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:195 msgid "Server" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:196 src/android/aidl/deploy.md:1 msgid "Deploy" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:197 msgid "Client" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:198 src/android/aidl/changing.md:1 msgid "Changing API" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:199 src/SUMMARY.md:243 src/android/logging.md:1 #: src/bare-metal/aps/logging.md:1 msgid "Logging" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:200 src/android/interoperability.md:1 msgid "Interoperability" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:201 msgid "With C" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:202 msgid "Calling C with Bindgen" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:203 msgid "Calling Rust from C" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:204 src/android/interoperability/cpp.md:1 msgid "With C++" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:205 msgid "With Java" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:209 msgid "Bare Metal: Morning" msgstr "Rå jern: Formiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:214 msgid "no_std" msgstr "no_std" #: src/SUMMARY.md:215 msgid "A Minimal Example" msgstr "Et minimalt eksempel" #: src/SUMMARY.md:216 msgid "alloc" msgstr "alloc" #: src/SUMMARY.md:217 src/bare-metal/microcontrollers.md:1 msgid "Microcontrollers" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:218 src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/mmio.md:1 msgid "Raw MMIO" msgstr "Rå MMIO" #: src/SUMMARY.md:219 msgid "PACs" msgstr "PAC'er" #: src/SUMMARY.md:220 msgid "HAL Crates" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:221 msgid "Board Support Crates" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:222 msgid "The Type State Pattern" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:223 msgid "embedded-hal" msgstr "embedded-hal" #: src/SUMMARY.md:224 msgid "probe-rs, cargo-embed" msgstr "probe-rs, cargo-embed" #: src/SUMMARY.md:225 src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/debugging.md:1 msgid "Debugging" msgstr "Fejlfinding" #: src/SUMMARY.md:226 src/SUMMARY.md:246 msgid "Other Projects" msgstr "Andre projekter" #: src/SUMMARY.md:228 src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:1 #: src/exercises/bare-metal/solutions-morning.md:3 msgid "Compass" msgstr "Kompas" #: src/SUMMARY.md:230 msgid "Bare Metal: Afternoon" msgstr "Rå jern: Eftermiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:232 msgid "Application Processors" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:233 src/bare-metal/aps/entry-point.md:1 msgid "Getting Ready to Rust" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:234 msgid "Inline Assembly" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:235 msgid "MMIO" msgstr "MMIO" #: src/SUMMARY.md:236 msgid "Let's Write a UART Driver" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:237 msgid "More Traits" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:238 msgid "A Better UART Driver" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:239 src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/bitflags.md:1 msgid "Bitflags" msgstr "Bitflag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:240 msgid "Multiple Registers" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:241 src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/driver.md:1 msgid "Driver" msgstr "Driver" #: src/SUMMARY.md:242 src/SUMMARY.md:244 msgid "Using It" msgstr "Anvendelse" #: src/SUMMARY.md:245 src/bare-metal/aps/exceptions.md:1 #, fuzzy msgid "Exceptions" msgstr "Funktioner" #: src/SUMMARY.md:247 msgid "Useful Crates" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:248 msgid "zerocopy" msgstr "zerocopy" #: src/SUMMARY.md:249 msgid "aarch64-paging" msgstr "aarch64-paging" #: src/SUMMARY.md:250 msgid "buddy_system_allocator" msgstr "buddy_system_allocator" #: src/SUMMARY.md:251 msgid "tinyvec" msgstr "tinyvec" #: src/SUMMARY.md:252 msgid "spin" msgstr "spin" #: src/SUMMARY.md:254 src/bare-metal/android/vmbase.md:1 msgid "vmbase" msgstr "vmbase" #: src/SUMMARY.md:256 msgid "RTC Driver" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:259 msgid "Concurrency: Morning" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:264 src/concurrency/threads.md:1 msgid "Threads" msgstr "Tråde" #: src/SUMMARY.md:265 src/concurrency/scoped-threads.md:1 msgid "Scoped Threads" msgstr "Tråde med virkefelt" #: src/SUMMARY.md:266 src/concurrency/channels.md:1 msgid "Channels" msgstr "Kanaler" #: src/SUMMARY.md:267 src/concurrency/channels/unbounded.md:1 msgid "Unbounded Channels" msgstr "Ubegrænsede kanaler" #: src/SUMMARY.md:268 src/concurrency/channels/bounded.md:1 msgid "Bounded Channels" msgstr "Begrænsede kanaler" #: src/SUMMARY.md:269 msgid "Send and Sync" msgstr "Send og Sync" #: src/SUMMARY.md:269 msgid "Send" msgstr "Send" #: src/SUMMARY.md:269 msgid "Sync" msgstr "Sync" #: src/SUMMARY.md:272 src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:1 msgid "Examples" msgstr "Eksempler" #: src/SUMMARY.md:273 src/concurrency/shared_state.md:1 msgid "Shared State" msgstr "Delt tilstand" #: src/SUMMARY.md:274 msgid "Arc" msgstr "Arc" #: src/SUMMARY.md:275 msgid "Mutex" msgstr "Mutex" #: src/SUMMARY.md:278 src/SUMMARY.md:299 #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers.md:1 #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-morning.md:3 msgid "Dining Philosophers" msgstr "Filosoffer omkring spisebordet" #: src/SUMMARY.md:279 src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:1 msgid "Multi-threaded Link Checker" msgstr "Flertrådet linktjekker" #: src/SUMMARY.md:281 #, fuzzy msgid "Concurrency: Afternoon" msgstr "Dag 1: Eftermiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:283 msgid "Async Basics" msgstr "Grundlæggende Async" #: src/SUMMARY.md:284 msgid "async/await" msgstr "async/await" #: src/SUMMARY.md:285 src/async/futures.md:1 msgid "Futures" msgstr "Fremtidige resultater (eng. Futures)" #: src/SUMMARY.md:286 src/async/runtimes.md:1 #, fuzzy msgid "Runtimes" msgstr "Garantier under programudføring" #: src/SUMMARY.md:287 src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:1 msgid "Tokio" msgstr "Tokio" #: src/SUMMARY.md:288 src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:126 #: src/async/tasks.md:1 src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:140 msgid "Tasks" msgstr "Opgaver (eng. Tasks)" #: src/SUMMARY.md:289 src/async/channels.md:1 msgid "Async Channels" msgstr "Asynkrone kanaler" #: src/SUMMARY.md:291 src/async/control-flow/join.md:1 msgid "Join" msgstr "Join" #: src/SUMMARY.md:292 src/async/control-flow/select.md:1 msgid "Select" msgstr "Select" #: src/SUMMARY.md:293 msgid "Pitfalls" msgstr "Faldgruber" #: src/SUMMARY.md:294 msgid "Blocking the Executor" msgstr "" #: src/SUMMARY.md:295 src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:1 msgid "Pin" msgstr "Pin" #: src/SUMMARY.md:296 src/async/pitfalls/async-traits.md:1 msgid "Async Traits" msgstr "Asynkrone egenskaber (eng. Traits)" #: src/SUMMARY.md:297 src/async/pitfalls/cancellation.md:1 #, fuzzy msgid "Cancellation" msgstr "Installation" #: src/SUMMARY.md:300 src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:1 #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-afternoon.md:119 msgid "Broadcast Chat Application" msgstr "Broadcast chat-applikation" #: src/SUMMARY.md:303 msgid "Final Words" msgstr "Afsluttende bemærkninger" #: src/SUMMARY.md:307 src/thanks.md:1 msgid "Thanks!" msgstr "Tak!" #: src/SUMMARY.md:308 msgid "Other Resources" msgstr "Andre resourcer" #: src/SUMMARY.md:309 src/credits.md:1 msgid "Credits" msgstr "Anerkendelser" #: src/SUMMARY.md:312 src/exercises/solutions.md:1 msgid "Solutions" msgstr "Løsninger" #: src/SUMMARY.md:317 msgid "Day 1 Morning" msgstr "Dag 1 Formiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:318 msgid "Day 1 Afternoon" msgstr "Dag 1 Eftermiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:319 msgid "Day 2 Morning" msgstr "Dag 2 Formiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:320 msgid "Day 2 Afternoon" msgstr "Dag 2 Eftermiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:321 msgid "Day 3 Morning" msgstr "Dag 3 Formiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:322 msgid "Day 3 Afternoon" msgstr "Dag 3 Eftermiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:323 msgid "Bare Metal Rust Morning" msgstr "Rå jern Rust formiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:324 src/exercises/bare-metal/solutions-afternoon.md:1 msgid "Bare Metal Rust Afternoon" msgstr "Rå jern Rust eftermiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:325 msgid "Concurrency Morning" msgstr "Parallelprogrammering formiddag" #: src/SUMMARY.md:326 msgid "Concurrency Afternoon" msgstr "Parallelprogrammering eftermiddag" #: src/index.md:3 msgid "" "[![Build workflow](https://img.shields.io/github/actions/workflow/status/" "google/comprehensive-rust/build.yml?style=flat-square)](https://github.com/" "google/comprehensive-rust/actions/workflows/build.yml?query=branch%3Amain) [!" "[GitHub contributors](https://img.shields.io/github/contributors/google/" "comprehensive-rust?style=flat-square)](https://github.com/google/" "comprehensive-rust/graphs/contributors) [![GitHub stars](https://img.shields." "io/github/stars/google/comprehensive-rust?style=flat-square)](https://github." "com/google/comprehensive-rust/stargazers)" msgstr "" #: src/index.md:7 #, fuzzy msgid "" "This is a free Rust course developed by the Android team at Google. The " "course covers the full spectrum of Rust, from basic syntax to advanced " "topics like generics and error handling." msgstr "" "Dette er et tre dages Rust-kursus udviklet af Android-teamet. Kurset dækker " "hele spektret af Rust, fra grundlæggende syntaks til avancerede emner som " "generiske og fejlhåndtering. Det inkluderer også Android-specifikt indhold " "på den sidste dag." #: src/index.md:11 msgid "" "The goal of the course is to teach you Rust. We assume you don't know " "anything about Rust and hope to:" msgstr "" "Målet med kurset er at lære dig Rust. Vi antager, at du ikke ved noget om " "Rust og håber at:" #: src/index.md:14 msgid "Give you a comprehensive understanding of the Rust syntax and language." msgstr "Giver dig en omfattende forståelse af Rust-syntaksen og sproget." #: src/index.md:15 msgid "Enable you to modify existing programs and write new programs in Rust." msgstr "" "Gøre det muligt for dig at ændre eksisterende programmer og skrive nye " "programmer i Rust." #: src/index.md:16 msgid "Show you common Rust idioms." msgstr "Vis dig almindelige Rust idiomer." #: src/index.md:18 msgid "We call the first three course days Rust Fundamentals." msgstr "" #: src/index.md:20 msgid "" "Building on this, you're invited to dive into one or more specialized topics:" msgstr "" #: src/index.md:22 msgid "" "[Android](android.md): a half-day course on using Rust for Android platform " "development (AOSP). This includes interoperability with C, C++, and Java." msgstr "" #: src/index.md:24 msgid "" "[Bare-metal](bare-metal.md): a whole-day class on using Rust for bare-metal " "(embedded) development. Both microcontrollers and application processors are " "covered." msgstr "" #: src/index.md:27 msgid "" "[Concurrency](concurrency.md): a whole-day class on concurrency in Rust. We " "cover both classical concurrency (preemptively scheduling using threads and " "mutexes) and async/await concurrency (cooperative multitasking using " "futures)." msgstr "" #: src/index.md:33 msgid "Non-Goals" msgstr "Ting som ikke dækkes" #: src/index.md:35 msgid "" "Rust is a large language and we won't be able to cover all of it in a few " "days. Some non-goals of this course are:" msgstr "" "Rust er et stort sprog og vi vil ikke være i stand til at dække det hele på " "et par dage. Nogle af ting som vi ikke dækker er:" #: src/index.md:38 msgid "" "Learning how to develop macros: please see [Chapter 19.5 in the Rust Book]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch19-06-macros.html) and [Rust by Example]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/rust-by-example/macros.html) instead." msgstr "" #: src/index.md:42 msgid "Assumptions" msgstr "Antagelser" #: src/index.md:44 msgid "" "The course assumes that you already know how to program. Rust is a " "statically-typed language and we will sometimes make comparisons with C and " "C++ to better explain or contrast the Rust approach." msgstr "" #: src/index.md:48 msgid "" "If you know how to program in a dynamically-typed language such as Python or " "JavaScript, then you will be able to follow along just fine too." msgstr "" #: src/index.md:53 msgid "" "This is an example of a _speaker note_. We will use these to add additional " "information to the slides. This could be key points which the instructor " "should cover as well as answers to typical questions which come up in class." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course.md:3 src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:3 msgid "This page is for the course instructor." msgstr "Denne side er for kursuslederen." #: src/running-the-course.md:5 msgid "" "Here is a bit of background information about how we've been running the " "course internally at Google." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course.md:8 msgid "Before you run the course, you will want to:" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course.md:10 msgid "" "Make yourself familiar with the course material. We've included speaker " "notes to help highlight the key points (please help us by contributing more " "speaker notes!). When presenting, you should make sure to open the speaker " "notes in a popup (click the link with a little arrow next to \"Speaker " "Notes\"). This way you have a clean screen to present to the class." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course.md:16 msgid "" "Decide on the dates. Since the course takes at least three full days, we " "recommend that you schedule the days over two weeks. Course participants " "have said that they find it helpful to have a gap in the course since it " "helps them process all the information we give them." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course.md:21 msgid "" "Find a room large enough for your in-person participants. We recommend a " "class size of 15-25 people. That's small enough that people are comfortable " "asking questions --- it's also small enough that one instructor will have " "time to answer the questions. Make sure the room has _desks_ for yourself " "and for the students: you will all need to be able to sit and work with your " "laptops. In particular, you will be doing a lot of live-coding as an " "instructor, so a lectern won't be very helpful for you." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course.md:29 msgid "" "On the day of your course, show up to the room a little early to set things " "up. We recommend presenting directly using `mdbook serve` running on your " "laptop (see the [installation instructions](https://github.com/google/" "comprehensive-rust#building)). This ensures optimal performance with no lag " "as you change pages. Using your laptop will also allow you to fix typos as " "you or the course participants spot them." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course.md:35 msgid "" "Let people solve the exercises by themselves or in small groups. We " "typically spend 30-45 minutes on exercises in the morning and in the " "afternoon (including time to review the solutions). Make sure to ask people " "if they're stuck or if there is anything you can help with. When you see " "that several people have the same problem, call it out to the class and " "offer a solution, e.g., by showing people where to find the relevant " "information in the standard library." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course.md:43 msgid "" "That is all, good luck running the course! We hope it will be as much fun " "for you as it has been for us!" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course.md:46 msgid "" "Please [provide feedback](https://github.com/google/comprehensive-rust/" "discussions/86) afterwards so that we can keep improving the course. We " "would love to hear what worked well for you and what can be made better. " "Your students are also very welcome to [send us feedback](https://github.com/" "google/comprehensive-rust/discussions/100)!" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:5 msgid "The course is fast paced and covers a lot of ground:" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:7 msgid "Day 1: Basic Rust, ownership and the borrow checker." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:8 msgid "Day 2: Compound data types, pattern matching, the standard library." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:9 msgid "Day 3: Traits and generics, error handling, testing, unsafe Rust." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:11 msgid "Deep Dives" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:13 msgid "" "In addition to the 3-day class on Rust Fundamentals, we cover some more " "specialized topics:" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:18 msgid "" "The [Android Deep Dive](../android.md) is a half-day course on using Rust " "for Android platform development. This includes interoperability with C, C+" "+, and Java." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:22 msgid "" "You will need an [AOSP checkout](https://source.android.com/docs/setup/" "download/downloading). Make a checkout of the [course repository](https://" "github.com/google/comprehensive-rust) on the same machine and move the `src/" "android/` directory into the root of your AOSP checkout. This will ensure " "that the Android build system sees the `Android.bp` files in `src/android/`." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:27 msgid "" "Ensure that `adb sync` works with your emulator or real device and pre-build " "all Android examples using `src/android/build_all.sh`. Read the script to " "see the commands it runs and make sure they work when you run them by hand." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:34 msgid "Bare-Metal" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:36 msgid "" "The [Bare-Metal Deep Dive](../bare-metal.md): a full day class on using Rust " "for bare-metal (embedded) development. Both microcontrollers and application " "processors are covered." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:40 msgid "" "For the microcontroller part, you will need to buy the [BBC micro:bit]" "(https://microbit.org/) v2 development board ahead of time. Everybody will " "need to install a number of packages as described on the [welcome page](../" "bare-metal.md)." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:45 msgid "Concurrency" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:47 msgid "" "The [Concurrency Deep Dive](../concurrency.md) is a full day class on " "classical as well as `async`/`await` concurrency." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:50 msgid "" "You will need a fresh crate set up and the dependencies downloaded and ready " "to go. You can then copy/paste the examples into `src/main.rs` to experiment " "with them:" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:54 msgid "" "```shell\n" "cargo init concurrency\n" "cd concurrency\n" "cargo add tokio --features full\n" "cargo run\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:61 msgid "Format" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/course-structure.md:63 msgid "" "The course is meant to be very interactive and we recommend letting the " "questions drive the exploration of Rust!" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/keyboard-shortcuts.md:3 msgid "There are several useful keyboard shortcuts in mdBook:" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/keyboard-shortcuts.md:5 msgid "Arrow-Left" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/keyboard-shortcuts.md:5 msgid ": Navigate to the previous page." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/keyboard-shortcuts.md:6 msgid "Arrow-Right" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/keyboard-shortcuts.md:6 msgid ": Navigate to the next page." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/keyboard-shortcuts.md:7 src/cargo/code-samples.md:19 msgid "Ctrl + Enter" msgstr "Ctrl + Enter" #: src/running-the-course/keyboard-shortcuts.md:7 msgid ": Execute the code sample that has focus." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/keyboard-shortcuts.md:8 msgid "s" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/keyboard-shortcuts.md:8 msgid ": Activate the search bar." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/translations.md:3 msgid "" "The course has been translated into other languages by a set of wonderful " "volunteers:" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/translations.md:6 msgid "" "[Brazilian Portuguese](https://google.github.io/comprehensive-rust/pt-BR/) " "by [@rastringer](https://github.com/rastringer), [@hugojacob](https://github." "com/hugojacob), [@joaovicmendes](https://github.com/joaovicmendes) and " "[@henrif75](https://github.com/henrif75)." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/translations.md:7 msgid "" "[Korean](https://google.github.io/comprehensive-rust/ko/) by [@keispace]" "(https://github.com/keispace), [@jiyongp](https://github.com/jiyongp) and " "[@jooyunghan](https://github.com/jooyunghan)." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/translations.md:9 msgid "" "Use the language picker in the top-right corner to switch between languages." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/translations.md:11 #, fuzzy msgid "Incomplete Translations" msgstr "Oversættelser" #: src/running-the-course/translations.md:13 msgid "" "There is a large number of in-progress translations. We link to the most " "recently updated translations:" msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/translations.md:16 msgid "" "[Bengali](https://google.github.io/comprehensive-rust/bn/) by [@raselmandol]" "(https://github.com/raselmandol)." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/translations.md:17 msgid "" "[French](https://google.github.io/comprehensive-rust/fr/) by [@KookaS]" "(https://github.com/KookaS) and [@vcaen](https://github.com/vcaen)." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/translations.md:18 msgid "" "[German](https://google.github.io/comprehensive-rust/de/) by [@Throvn]" "(https://github.com/Throvn) and [@ronaldfw](https://github.com/ronaldfw)." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/translations.md:19 msgid "" "[Japanese](https://google.github.io/comprehensive-rust/ja/) by [@CoinEZ-JPN]" "(https://github.com/CoinEZ) and [@momotaro1105](https://github.com/" "momotaro1105)." msgstr "" #: src/running-the-course/translations.md:21 msgid "" "If you want to help with this effort, please see [our instructions](https://" "github.com/google/comprehensive-rust/blob/main/TRANSLATIONS.md) for how to " "get going. Translations are coordinated on the [issue tracker](https://" "github.com/google/comprehensive-rust/issues/282)." msgstr "" #: src/cargo.md:3 msgid "" "When you start reading about Rust, you will soon meet [Cargo](https://doc." "rust-lang.org/cargo/), the standard tool used in the Rust ecosystem to build " "and run Rust applications. Here we want to give a brief overview of what " "Cargo is and how it fits into the wider ecosystem and how it fits into this " "training." msgstr "" #: src/cargo.md:8 msgid "Installation" msgstr "Installation" #: src/cargo.md:10 msgid "**Please follow the instructions on .**" msgstr "" #: src/cargo.md:12 msgid "" "This will give you the Cargo build tool (`cargo`) and the Rust compiler " "(`rustc`). You will also get `rustup`, a command line utility that you can " "use to install/switch toolchains, setup cross compilation, etc." msgstr "" #: src/cargo.md:16 msgid "" "On Debian/Ubuntu, you can also install Cargo, the Rust source and the [Rust " "formatter](https://github.com/rust-lang/rustfmt) via `apt`. However, this " "gets you an outdated rust version and may lead to unexpected behavior. The " "command would be:" msgstr "" #: src/cargo.md:18 #, fuzzy msgid "" "```shell\n" " sudo apt install cargo rust-src rustfmt\n" "```" msgstr "" "```shell\n" "$ sudo apt install cargo rust-src rustfmt\n" "```" #: src/cargo.md:22 msgid "" "We suggest using [VS Code](https://code.visualstudio.com/) to edit the code " "(but any LSP compatible editor works with rust-analyzer[3](https://rust-" "analyzer.github.io/))." msgstr "" #: src/cargo.md:24 msgid "" "Some folks also like to use the [JetBrains](https://www.jetbrains.com/" "clion/) family of IDEs, which do their own analysis but have their own " "tradeoffs. If you prefer them, you can install the [Rust Plugin](https://www." "jetbrains.com/rust/). Please take note that as of January 2023 debugging " "only works on the CLion version of the JetBrains IDEA suite." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:1 msgid "The Rust Ecosystem" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:3 msgid "" "The Rust ecosystem consists of a number of tools, of which the main ones are:" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:5 msgid "" "`rustc`: the Rust compiler which turns `.rs` files into binaries and other " "intermediate formats." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:8 msgid "" "`cargo`: the Rust dependency manager and build tool. Cargo knows how to " "download dependencies, usually hosted on , and it will " "pass them to `rustc` when building your project. Cargo also comes with a " "built-in test runner which is used to execute unit tests." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:13 msgid "" "`rustup`: the Rust toolchain installer and updater. This tool is used to " "install and update `rustc` and `cargo` when new versions of Rust is " "released. In addition, `rustup` can also download documentation for the " "standard library. You can have multiple versions of Rust installed at once " "and `rustup` will let you switch between them as needed." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:21 src/hello-world.md:25 #: src/hello-world/small-example.md:27 src/why-rust/runtime.md:10 #: src/why-rust/modern.md:21 src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:30 #: src/basic-syntax/references.md:23 #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-enums.md:35 #: src/error-handling/try-operator.md:48 #: src/error-handling/converting-error-types-example.md:50 #: src/concurrency/threads.md:30 src/async/async-await.md:25 msgid "Key points:" msgstr "Nøglepunkter:" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:23 msgid "" "Rust has a rapid release schedule with a new release coming out every six " "weeks. New releases maintain backwards compatibility with old releases --- " "plus they enable new functionality." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:27 msgid "" "There are three release channels: \"stable\", \"beta\", and \"nightly\"." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:29 msgid "" "New features are being tested on \"nightly\", \"beta\" is what becomes " "\"stable\" every six weeks." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:32 msgid "" "Dependencies can also be resolved from alternative [registries](https://doc." "rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/registries.html), git, folders, and more." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:34 msgid "" "Rust also has [editions](https://doc.rust-lang.org/edition-guide/): the " "current edition is Rust 2021. Previous editions were Rust 2015 and Rust 2018." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:37 msgid "" "The editions are allowed to make backwards incompatible changes to the " "language." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:40 msgid "" "To prevent breaking code, editions are opt-in: you select the edition for " "your crate via the `Cargo.toml` file." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:43 msgid "" "To avoid splitting the ecosystem, Rust compilers can mix code written for " "different editions." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:46 msgid "" "Mention that it is quite rare to ever use the compiler directly not through " "`cargo` (most users never do)." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:48 msgid "" "It might be worth alluding that Cargo itself is an extremely powerful and " "comprehensive tool. It is capable of many advanced features including but " "not limited to: " msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:49 msgid "Project/package structure" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:50 msgid "[workspaces](https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/workspaces.html)" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:51 msgid "Dev Dependencies and Runtime Dependency management/caching" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:52 msgid "" "[build scripting](https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/build-scripts." "html)" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:53 msgid "" "[global installation](https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/commands/cargo-install." "html)" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:54 msgid "" "It is also extensible with sub command plugins as well (such as [cargo " "clippy](https://github.com/rust-lang/rust-clippy))." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/rust-ecosystem.md:55 msgid "" "Read more from the [official Cargo Book](https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/)" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/code-samples.md:1 msgid "Code Samples in This Training" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/code-samples.md:3 msgid "" "For this training, we will mostly explore the Rust language through examples " "which can be executed through your browser. This makes the setup much easier " "and ensures a consistent experience for everyone." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/code-samples.md:7 msgid "" "Installing Cargo is still encouraged: it will make it easier for you to do " "the exercises. On the last day, we will do a larger exercise which shows you " "how to work with dependencies and for that you need Cargo." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/code-samples.md:11 msgid "The code blocks in this course are fully interactive:" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/code-samples.md:13 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"Edit me!\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"Rediger mig!\");\n" "}\n" "```" #: src/cargo/code-samples.md:19 msgid "You can use " msgstr "Du kan bruge " #: src/cargo/code-samples.md:19 msgid " to execute the code when focus is in the text box." msgstr " for at afvikle koden når fokus er i tekstboksen." #: src/cargo/code-samples.md:24 msgid "" "Most code samples are editable like shown above. A few code samples are not " "editable for various reasons:" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/code-samples.md:27 msgid "" "The embedded playgrounds cannot execute unit tests. Copy-paste the code and " "open it in the real Playground to demonstrate unit tests." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/code-samples.md:30 msgid "" "The embedded playgrounds lose their state the moment you navigate away from " "the page! This is the reason that the students should solve the exercises " "using a local Rust installation or via the Playground." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:1 msgid "Running Code Locally with Cargo" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:3 msgid "" "If you want to experiment with the code on your own system, then you will " "need to first install Rust. Do this by following the [instructions in the " "Rust Book](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch01-01-installation.html). This " "should give you a working `rustc` and `cargo`. At the time of writing, the " "latest stable Rust release has these version numbers:" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:8 msgid "" "```shell\n" "% rustc --version\n" "rustc 1.69.0 (84c898d65 2023-04-16)\n" "% cargo --version\n" "cargo 1.69.0 (6e9a83356 2023-04-12)\n" "```" msgstr "" "```shell\n" "% rustc --version\n" "rustc 1.69.0 (84c898d65 2023-04-16)\n" "% cargo --version\n" "cargo 1.69.0 (6e9a83356 2023-04-12)\n" "```" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:15 msgid "" "You can use any later version too since Rust maintains backwards " "compatibility." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:17 msgid "" "With this in place, follow these steps to build a Rust binary from one of " "the examples in this training:" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:20 msgid "Click the \"Copy to clipboard\" button on the example you want to copy." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:22 msgid "" "Use `cargo new exercise` to create a new `exercise/` directory for your code:" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:24 msgid "" "```shell\n" "$ cargo new exercise\n" " Created binary (application) `exercise` package\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:29 msgid "" "Navigate into `exercise/` and use `cargo run` to build and run your binary:" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:31 msgid "" "```shell\n" "$ cd exercise\n" "$ cargo run\n" " Compiling exercise v0.1.0 (/home/mgeisler/tmp/exercise)\n" " Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.75s\n" " Running `target/debug/exercise`\n" "Hello, world!\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:40 msgid "" "Replace the boiler-plate code in `src/main.rs` with your own code. For " "example, using the example on the previous page, make `src/main.rs` look like" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:43 msgid "" "```rust\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"Edit me!\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:49 msgid "Use `cargo run` to build and run your updated binary:" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:51 msgid "" "```shell\n" "$ cargo run\n" " Compiling exercise v0.1.0 (/home/mgeisler/tmp/exercise)\n" " Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.24s\n" " Running `target/debug/exercise`\n" "Edit me!\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:59 msgid "" "Use `cargo check` to quickly check your project for errors, use `cargo " "build` to compile it without running it. You will find the output in `target/" "debug/` for a normal debug build. Use `cargo build --release` to produce an " "optimized release build in `target/release/`." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:64 msgid "" "You can add dependencies for your project by editing `Cargo.toml`. When you " "run `cargo` commands, it will automatically download and compile missing " "dependencies for you." msgstr "" #: src/cargo/running-locally.md:72 msgid "" "Try to encourage the class participants to install Cargo and use a local " "editor. It will make their life easier since they will have a normal " "development environment." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:1 msgid "Welcome to Day 1" msgstr "Velkommen til Dag 1" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:3 #, fuzzy msgid "" "This is the first day of Rust Fundamentals. We will cover a lot of ground " "today:" msgstr "" "Dette er den første dag af Comprehensive Rust. Vi kommer til at dække en " "masse terræn i dag:" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:6 msgid "" "Basic Rust syntax: variables, scalar and compound types, enums, structs, " "references, functions, and methods." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:9 msgid "" "Memory management: stack vs heap, manual memory management, scope-based " "memory management, and garbage collection." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:12 msgid "" "Ownership: move semantics, copying and cloning, borrowing, and lifetimes." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:16 msgid "Please remind the students that:" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:18 msgid "" "They should ask questions when they get them, don't save them to the end." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:19 msgid "" "The class is meant to be interactive and discussions are very much " "encouraged!" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:20 msgid "" "As an instructor, you should try to keep the discussions relevant, i.e., " "keep the discussions related to how Rust does things vs some other " "language. It can be hard to find the right balance, but err on the side of " "allowing discussions since they engage people much more than one-way " "communication." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:24 msgid "" "The questions will likely mean that we talk about things ahead of the slides." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:25 msgid "" "This is perfectly okay! Repetition is an important part of learning. " "Remember that the slides are just a support and you are free to skip them as " "you like." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:29 msgid "" "The idea for the first day is to show _just enough_ of Rust to be able to " "speak about the famous borrow checker. The way Rust handles memory is a " "major feature and we should show students this right away." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:33 msgid "" "If you're teaching this in a classroom, this is a good place to go over the " "schedule. We suggest splitting the day into two parts (following the slides):" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:36 msgid "Morning: 9:00 to 12:00," msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:37 msgid "Afternoon: 13:00 to 16:00." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1.md:39 msgid "" "You can of course adjust this as necessary. Please make sure to include " "breaks, we recommend a break every hour!" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:3 msgid "" "Rust is a new programming language which had its [1.0 release in 2015]" "(https://blog.rust-lang.org/2015/05/15/Rust-1.0.html):" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:5 msgid "Rust is a statically compiled language in a similar role as C++" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:6 msgid "`rustc` uses LLVM as its backend." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:7 msgid "" "Rust supports many [platforms and architectures](https://doc.rust-lang.org/" "nightly/rustc/platform-support.html):" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:9 msgid "x86, ARM, WebAssembly, ..." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:10 msgid "Linux, Mac, Windows, ..." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:11 msgid "Rust is used for a wide range of devices:" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:12 msgid "firmware and boot loaders," msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:13 msgid "smart displays," msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:14 msgid "mobile phones," msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:15 msgid "desktops," msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:16 msgid "servers." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:21 msgid "Rust fits in the same area as C++:" msgstr "Rust har det samme anvendelsesområde som C++:" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:23 msgid "High flexibility." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:24 msgid "High level of control." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:25 msgid "" "Can be scaled down to very constrained devices such as microcontrollers." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:26 msgid "Has no runtime or garbage collection." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-1/what-is-rust.md:27 msgid "Focuses on reliability and safety without sacrificing performance." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world.md:3 msgid "" "Let us jump into the simplest possible Rust program, a classic Hello World " "program:" msgstr "" #: src/hello-world.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"Hello 🌍!\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"Hallo 🌍!\");\n" "}\n" "```" #: src/hello-world.md:12 msgid "What you see:" msgstr "Hvad du ser:" #: src/hello-world.md:14 msgid "Functions are introduced with `fn`." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world.md:15 msgid "Blocks are delimited by curly braces like in C and C++." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world.md:16 msgid "The `main` function is the entry point of the program." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world.md:17 msgid "Rust has hygienic macros, `println!` is an example of this." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world.md:18 msgid "Rust strings are UTF-8 encoded and can contain any Unicode character." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world.md:22 msgid "" "This slide tries to make the students comfortable with Rust code. They will " "see a ton of it over the next three days so we start small with something " "familiar." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world.md:27 msgid "" "Rust is very much like other languages in the C/C++/Java tradition. It is " "imperative and it doesn't try to reinvent things unless absolutely necessary." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world.md:31 msgid "Rust is modern with full support for things like Unicode." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world.md:33 msgid "" "Rust uses macros for situations where you want to have a variable number of " "arguments (no function [overloading](basic-syntax/functions-interlude.md))." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world.md:36 msgid "" "Macros being 'hygienic' means they don't accidentally capture identifiers " "from the scope they are used in. Rust macros are actually only [partially " "hygienic](https://veykril.github.io/tlborm/decl-macros/minutiae/hygiene." "html)." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world.md:40 msgid "" "Rust is multi-paradigm. For example, it has powerful [object-oriented " "programming features](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch17-00-oop.html), and, " "while it is not a functional language, it includes a range of [functional " "concepts](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch13-00-functional-features.html)." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world/small-example.md:3 msgid "Here is a small example program in Rust:" msgstr "Her er et lille eksempel på et program i Rust:" #: src/hello-world/small-example.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() { // Program entry point\n" " let mut x: i32 = 6; // Mutable variable binding\n" " print!(\"{x}\"); // Macro for printing, like printf\n" " while x != 1 { // No parenthesis around expression\n" " if x % 2 == 0 { // Math like in other languages\n" " x = x / 2;\n" " } else {\n" " x = 3 * x + 1;\n" " }\n" " print!(\" -> {x}\");\n" " }\n" " println!();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/hello-world/small-example.md:23 msgid "" "The code implements the Collatz conjecture: it is believed that the loop " "will always end, but this is not yet proved. Edit the code and play with " "different inputs." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world/small-example.md:29 msgid "" "Explain that all variables are statically typed. Try removing `i32` to " "trigger type inference. Try with `i8` instead and trigger a runtime integer " "overflow." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world/small-example.md:32 msgid "Change `let mut x` to `let x`, discuss the compiler error." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world/small-example.md:34 msgid "" "Show how `print!` gives a compilation error if the arguments don't match the " "format string." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world/small-example.md:37 msgid "" "Show how you need to use `{}` as a placeholder if you want to print an " "expression which is more complex than just a single variable." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world/small-example.md:40 msgid "" "Show the students the standard library, show them how to search for `std::" "fmt` which has the rules of the formatting mini-language. It's important " "that the students become familiar with searching in the standard library." msgstr "" #: src/hello-world/small-example.md:44 msgid "" "In a shell `rustup doc std::fmt` will open a browser on the local std::fmt " "documentation" msgstr "" #: src/why-rust.md:3 msgid "Some unique selling points of Rust:" msgstr "" #: src/why-rust.md:5 msgid "Compile time memory safety." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust.md:6 msgid "Lack of undefined runtime behavior." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust.md:7 msgid "Modern language features." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust.md:11 msgid "" "Make sure to ask the class which languages they have experience with. " "Depending on the answer you can highlight different features of Rust:" msgstr "" #: src/why-rust.md:14 msgid "" "Experience with C or C++: Rust eliminates a whole class of _runtime errors_ " "via the borrow checker. You get performance like in C and C++, but you don't " "have the memory unsafety issues. In addition, you get a modern language with " "constructs like pattern matching and built-in dependency management." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust.md:19 msgid "" "Experience with Java, Go, Python, JavaScript...: You get the same memory " "safety as in those languages, plus a similar high-level language feeling. In " "addition you get fast and predictable performance like C and C++ (no garbage " "collector) as well as access to low-level hardware (should you need it)" msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:3 msgid "Static memory management at compile time:" msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:5 msgid "No uninitialized variables." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:6 msgid "No memory leaks (_mostly_, see notes)." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:7 msgid "No double-frees." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:8 msgid "No use-after-free." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:9 msgid "No `NULL` pointers." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:10 msgid "No forgotten locked mutexes." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:11 msgid "No data races between threads." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:12 msgid "No iterator invalidation." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:16 msgid "" "It is possible to produce memory leaks in (safe) Rust. Some examples are:" msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:19 msgid "" "You can use [`Box::leak`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/boxed/struct.Box." "html#method.leak) to leak a pointer. A use of this could be to get runtime-" "initialized and runtime-sized static variables" msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:21 msgid "" "You can use [`std::mem::forget`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/mem/fn.forget." "html) to make the compiler \"forget\" about a value (meaning the destructor " "is never run)." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:23 msgid "" "You can also accidentally create a [reference cycle](https://doc.rust-lang." "org/book/ch15-06-reference-cycles.html) with `Rc` or `Arc`." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:25 msgid "" "In fact, some will consider infinitely populating a collection a memory leak " "and Rust does not protect from those." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/compile-time.md:28 msgid "" "For the purpose of this course, \"No memory leaks\" should be understood as " "\"Pretty much no _accidental_ memory leaks\"." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/runtime.md:3 msgid "No undefined behavior at runtime:" msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/runtime.md:5 msgid "Array access is bounds checked." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/runtime.md:6 msgid "Integer overflow is defined (panic or wrap-around)." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/runtime.md:12 msgid "" "Integer overflow is defined via the [`overflow-checks`](https://doc.rust-" "lang.org/rustc/codegen-options/index.html#overflow-checks) compile-time " "flag. If enabled, the program will panic (a controlled crash of the " "program), otherwise you get wrap-around semantics. By default, you get " "panics in debug mode (`cargo build`) and wrap-around in release mode (`cargo " "build --release`)." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/runtime.md:18 msgid "" "Bounds checking cannot be disabled with a compiler flag. It can also not be " "disabled directly with the `unsafe` keyword. However, `unsafe` allows you to " "call functions such as `slice::get_unchecked` which does not do bounds " "checking." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:3 msgid "Rust is built with all the experience gained in the last decades." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:5 msgid "Language Features" msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:7 msgid "Enums and pattern matching." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:8 msgid "Generics." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:9 msgid "No overhead FFI." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:10 msgid "Zero-cost abstractions." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:12 msgid "Tooling" msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:14 msgid "Great compiler errors." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:15 msgid "Built-in dependency manager." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:16 msgid "Built-in support for testing." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:17 msgid "Excellent Language Server Protocol support." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:23 msgid "" "Zero-cost abstractions, similar to C++, means that you don't have to 'pay' " "for higher-level programming constructs with memory or CPU. For example, " "writing a loop using `for` should result in roughly the same low level " "instructions as using the `.iter().fold()` construct." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:28 msgid "" "It may be worth mentioning that Rust enums are 'Algebraic Data Types', also " "known as 'sum types', which allow the type system to express things like " "`Option` and `Result`." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:32 msgid "" "Remind people to read the errors --- many developers have gotten used to " "ignore lengthy compiler output. The Rust compiler is significantly more " "talkative than other compilers. It will often provide you with _actionable_ " "feedback, ready to copy-paste into your code." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:37 msgid "" "The Rust standard library is small compared to languages like Java, Python, " "and Go. Rust does not come with several things you might consider standard " "and essential:" msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:41 msgid "a random number generator, but see [rand](https://docs.rs/rand/)." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:42 msgid "support for SSL or TLS, but see [rusttls](https://docs.rs/rustls/)." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:43 msgid "support for JSON, but see [serde_json](https://docs.rs/serde_json/)." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:45 msgid "" "The reasoning behind this is that functionality in the standard library " "cannot go away, so it has to be very stable. For the examples above, the " "Rust community is still working on finding the best solution --- and perhaps " "there isn't a single \"best solution\" for some of these things." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:50 msgid "" "Rust comes with a built-in package manager in the form of Cargo and this " "makes it trivial to download and compile third-party crates. A consequence " "of this is that the standard library can be smaller." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:54 msgid "" "Discovering good third-party crates can be a problem. Sites like help with this by letting you compare health metrics for crates to " "find a good and trusted one." msgstr "" #: src/why-rust/modern.md:58 msgid "" "[rust-analyzer](https://rust-analyzer.github.io/) is a well supported LSP " "implementation used in major IDEs and text editors." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax.md:3 msgid "Much of the Rust syntax will be familiar to you from C, C++ or Java:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax.md:5 msgid "Blocks and scopes are delimited by curly braces." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax.md:6 msgid "" "Line comments are started with `//`, block comments are delimited by `/* ... " "*/`." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax.md:8 msgid "Keywords like `if` and `while` work the same." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax.md:9 msgid "Variable assignment is done with `=`, comparison is done with `==`." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:3 src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:3 #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:16 msgid "Types" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:3 src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:3 msgid "Literals" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:5 msgid "Signed integers" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:5 msgid "`i8`, `i16`, `i32`, `i64`, `i128`, `isize`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:5 msgid "`-10`, `0`, `1_000`, `123_i64`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:6 msgid "Unsigned integers" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:6 msgid "`u8`, `u16`, `u32`, `u64`, `u128`, `usize`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:6 msgid "`0`, `123`, `10_u16`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:7 msgid "Floating point numbers" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:7 msgid "`f32`, `f64`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:7 msgid "`3.14`, `-10.0e20`, `2_f32`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:8 msgid "Strings" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:8 msgid "`&str`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:8 msgid "`\"foo\"`, `\"two\\nlines\"`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:9 msgid "Unicode scalar values" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:9 msgid "`char`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:9 msgid "`'a'`, `'α'`, `'∞'`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:10 msgid "Booleans" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:10 msgid "`bool`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:10 msgid "`true`, `false`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:12 msgid "The types have widths as follows:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:14 msgid "`iN`, `uN`, and `fN` are _N_ bits wide," msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:15 msgid "`isize` and `usize` are the width of a pointer," msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:16 msgid "`char` is 32 bits wide," msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:17 msgid "`bool` is 8 bits wide." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:21 msgid "There are a few syntaxes which are not shown above:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:23 msgid "" "Raw strings allow you to create a `&str` value with escapes disabled: " "`r\"\\n\" == \"\\\\n\"`. You can embed double-quotes by using an equal " "amount of `#` on either side of the quotes:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:27 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(r#\"link\"#);\n" " println!(\"link\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:34 msgid "Byte strings allow you to create a `&[u8]` value directly:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:36 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"{:?}\", b\"abc\");\n" " println!(\"{:?}\", &[97, 98, 99]);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scalar-types.md:43 msgid "" "All underscores in numbers can be left out, they are for legibility only. So " "`1_000` can be written as `1000` (or `10_00`), and `123_i64` can be written " "as `123i64`." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:5 msgid "Arrays" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:5 msgid "`[T; N]`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:5 msgid "`[20, 30, 40]`, `[0; 3]`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:6 msgid "Tuples" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:6 msgid "`()`, `(T,)`, `(T1, T2)`, ..." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:6 msgid "`()`, `('x',)`, `('x', 1.2)`, ..." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:8 msgid "Array assignment and access:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:10 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut a: [i8; 10] = [42; 10];\n" " a[5] = 0;\n" " println!(\"a: {:?}\", a);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:18 msgid "Tuple assignment and access:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:20 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let t: (i8, bool) = (7, true);\n" " println!(\"1st index: {}\", t.0);\n" " println!(\"2nd index: {}\", t.1);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:32 msgid "Arrays:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:34 msgid "" "A value of the array type `[T; N]` holds `N` (a compile-time constant) " "elements of the same type `T`. Note that the length of the array is _part of " "its type_, which means that `[u8; 3]` and `[u8; 4]` are considered two " "different types." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:38 msgid "We can use literals to assign values to arrays." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:40 msgid "" "In the main function, the print statement asks for the debug implementation " "with the `?` format parameter: `{}` gives the default output, `{:?}` gives " "the debug output. We could also have used `{a}` and `{a:?}` without " "specifying the value after the format string." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:45 msgid "" "Adding `#`, eg `{a:#?}`, invokes a \"pretty printing\" format, which can be " "easier to read." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:47 msgid "Tuples:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:49 msgid "Like arrays, tuples have a fixed length." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:51 msgid "Tuples group together values of different types into a compound type." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:53 msgid "" "Fields of a tuple can be accessed by the period and the index of the value, " "e.g. `t.0`, `t.1`." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:55 msgid "" "The empty tuple `()` is also known as the \"unit type\". It is both a type, " "and the only valid value of that type - that is to say both the type and its " "value are expressed as `()`. It is used to indicate, for example, that a " "function or expression has no return value, as we'll see in a future slide. " msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/compound-types.md:59 msgid "" "You can think of it as `void` that can be familiar to you from other " "programming languages." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/references.md:3 msgid "Like C++, Rust has references:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/references.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut x: i32 = 10;\n" " let ref_x: &mut i32 = &mut x;\n" " *ref_x = 20;\n" " println!(\"x: {x}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/references.md:14 msgid "Some notes:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/references.md:16 msgid "" "We must dereference `ref_x` when assigning to it, similar to C and C++ " "pointers." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/references.md:17 msgid "" "Rust will auto-dereference in some cases, in particular when invoking " "methods (try `ref_x.count_ones()`)." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/references.md:19 msgid "" "References that are declared as `mut` can be bound to different values over " "their lifetime." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/references.md:25 msgid "" "Be sure to note the difference between `let mut ref_x: &i32` and `let ref_x: " "&mut i32`. The first one represents a mutable reference which can be bound " "to different values, while the second represents a reference to a mutable " "value." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/references-dangling.md:3 msgid "Rust will statically forbid dangling references:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/references-dangling.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "fn main() {\n" " let ref_x: &i32;\n" " {\n" " let x: i32 = 10;\n" " ref_x = &x;\n" " }\n" " println!(\"ref_x: {ref_x}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/references-dangling.md:16 msgid "A reference is said to \"borrow\" the value it refers to." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/references-dangling.md:17 msgid "" "Rust is tracking the lifetimes of all references to ensure they live long " "enough." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/references-dangling.md:19 msgid "We will talk more about borrowing when we get to ownership." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/slices.md:3 msgid "A slice gives you a view into a larger collection:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/slices.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut a: [i32; 6] = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60];\n" " println!(\"a: {a:?}\");\n" "\n" " let s: &[i32] = &a[2..4];\n" "\n" " println!(\"s: {s:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/slices.md:16 msgid "Slices borrow data from the sliced type." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/slices.md:17 msgid "Question: What happens if you modify `a[3]` right before printing `s`?" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/slices.md:21 msgid "" "We create a slice by borrowing `a` and specifying the starting and ending " "indexes in brackets." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/slices.md:23 msgid "" "If the slice starts at index 0, Rust’s range syntax allows us to drop the " "starting index, meaning that `&a[0..a.len()]` and `&a[..a.len()]` are " "identical." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/slices.md:25 msgid "" "The same is true for the last index, so `&a[2..a.len()]` and `&a[2..]` are " "identical." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/slices.md:27 msgid "" "To easily create a slice of the full array, we can therefore use `&a[..]`." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/slices.md:29 msgid "" "`s` is a reference to a slice of `i32`s. Notice that the type of `s` " "(`&[i32]`) no longer mentions the array length. This allows us to perform " "computation on slices of different sizes." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/slices.md:31 msgid "" "Slices always borrow from another object. In this example, `a` has to remain " "'alive' (in scope) for at least as long as our slice. " msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/slices.md:33 msgid "" "The question about modifying `a[3]` can spark an interesting discussion, but " "the answer is that for memory safety reasons you cannot do it through `a` at " "this point in the execution, but you can read the data from both `a` and `s` " "safely. It works before you created the slice, and again after the " "`println`, when the slice is no longer used. More details will be explained " "in the borrow checker section." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/string-slices.md:1 msgid "`String` vs `str`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/string-slices.md:3 msgid "We can now understand the two string types in Rust:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/string-slices.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let s1: &str = \"World\";\n" " println!(\"s1: {s1}\");\n" "\n" " let mut s2: String = String::from(\"Hello \");\n" " println!(\"s2: {s2}\");\n" " s2.push_str(s1);\n" " println!(\"s2: {s2}\");\n" " \n" " let s3: &str = &s2[6..];\n" " println!(\"s3: {s3}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/string-slices.md:20 msgid "Rust terminology:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/string-slices.md:22 msgid "`&str` an immutable reference to a string slice." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/string-slices.md:23 msgid "`String` a mutable string buffer." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/string-slices.md:27 msgid "" "`&str` introduces a string slice, which is an immutable reference to UTF-8 " "encoded string data stored in a block of memory. String literals " "(`”Hello”`), are stored in the program’s binary." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/string-slices.md:30 msgid "" "Rust’s `String` type is a wrapper around a vector of bytes. As with a " "`Vec`, it is owned." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/string-slices.md:32 msgid "" "As with many other types `String::from()` creates a string from a string " "literal; `String::new()` creates a new empty string, to which string data " "can be added using the `push()` and `push_str()` methods." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/string-slices.md:35 msgid "" "The `format!()` macro is a convenient way to generate an owned string from " "dynamic values. It accepts the same format specification as `println!()`." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/string-slices.md:38 msgid "" "You can borrow `&str` slices from `String` via `&` and optionally range " "selection." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/string-slices.md:40 msgid "" "For C++ programmers: think of `&str` as `const char*` from C++, but the one " "that always points to a valid string in memory. Rust `String` is a rough " "equivalent of `std::string` from C++ (main difference: it can only contain " "UTF-8 encoded bytes and will never use a small-string optimization)." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions.md:3 msgid "" "A Rust version of the famous [FizzBuzz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/" "Fizz_buzz) interview question:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " print_fizzbuzz_to(20);\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn is_divisible(n: u32, divisor: u32) -> bool {\n" " if divisor == 0 {\n" " return false;\n" " }\n" " n % divisor == 0\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn fizzbuzz(n: u32) -> String {\n" " let fizz = if is_divisible(n, 3) { \"fizz\" } else { \"\" };\n" " let buzz = if is_divisible(n, 5) { \"buzz\" } else { \"\" };\n" " if fizz.is_empty() && buzz.is_empty() {\n" " return format!(\"{n}\");\n" " }\n" " format!(\"{fizz}{buzz}\")\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn print_fizzbuzz_to(n: u32) {\n" " for i in 1..=n {\n" " println!(\"{}\", fizzbuzz(i));\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions.md:35 msgid "" "We refer in `main` to a function written below. Neither forward declarations " "nor headers are necessary. " msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions.md:36 msgid "" "Declaration parameters are followed by a type (the reverse of some " "programming languages), then a return type." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions.md:37 msgid "" "The last expression in a function body (or any block) becomes the return " "value. Simply omit the `;` at the end of the expression." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions.md:38 msgid "" "Some functions have no return value, and return the 'unit type', `()`. The " "compiler will infer this if the `-> ()` return type is omitted." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions.md:39 msgid "" "The range expression in the `for` loop in `print_fizzbuzz_to()` contains " "`=n`, which causes it to include the upper bound." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/rustdoc.md:3 msgid "" "All language items in Rust can be documented using special `///` syntax." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/rustdoc.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "/// Determine whether the first argument is divisible by the second " "argument.\n" "///\n" "/// If the second argument is zero, the result is false.\n" "fn is_divisible_by(lhs: u32, rhs: u32) -> bool {\n" " if rhs == 0 {\n" " return false; // Corner case, early return\n" " }\n" " lhs % rhs == 0 // The last expression in a block is the return " "value\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/rustdoc.md:17 msgid "" "The contents are treated as Markdown. All published Rust library crates are " "automatically documented at [`docs.rs`](https://docs.rs) using the [rustdoc]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/rustdoc/what-is-rustdoc.html) tool. It is " "idiomatic to document all public items in an API using this pattern." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/rustdoc.md:24 msgid "" "Show students the generated docs for the `rand` crate at [`docs.rs/rand`]" "(https://docs.rs/rand)." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/rustdoc.md:27 msgid "" "This course does not include rustdoc on slides, just to save space, but in " "real code they should be present." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/rustdoc.md:30 msgid "" "Inner doc comments are discussed later (in the page on modules) and need not " "be addressed here." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/rustdoc.md:33 msgid "" "Rustdoc comments can contain code snippets that we can run and test using " "`cargo test`. We will discuss these tests in the [Testing section](../" "testing/doc-tests.html)." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/methods.md:3 msgid "" "Methods are functions associated with a type. The `self` argument of a " "method is an instance of the type it is associated with:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/methods.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "struct Rectangle {\n" " width: u32,\n" " height: u32,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Rectangle {\n" " fn area(&self) -> u32 {\n" " self.width * self.height\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn inc_width(&mut self, delta: u32) {\n" " self.width += delta;\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut rect = Rectangle { width: 10, height: 5 };\n" " println!(\"old area: {}\", rect.area());\n" " rect.inc_width(5);\n" " println!(\"new area: {}\", rect.area());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/methods.md:30 msgid "" "We will look much more at methods in today's exercise and in tomorrow's " "class." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/methods.md:34 msgid "Add a static method called `Rectangle::new` and call this from `main`:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/methods.md:36 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "fn new(width: u32, height: u32) -> Rectangle {\n" " Rectangle { width, height }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/methods.md:42 msgid "" "While _technically_, Rust does not have custom constructors, static methods " "are commonly used to initialize structs (but don't have to). The actual " "constructor, `Rectangle { width, height }`, could be called directly. See " "the [Rustnomicon](https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/constructors.html)." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/methods.md:45 msgid "" "Add a `Rectangle::square(width: u32)` constructor to illustrate that such " "static methods can take arbitrary parameters." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions-interlude.md:1 msgid "Function Overloading" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions-interlude.md:3 msgid "Overloading is not supported:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions-interlude.md:5 msgid "Each function has a single implementation:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions-interlude.md:6 msgid "Always takes a fixed number of parameters." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions-interlude.md:7 msgid "Always takes a single set of parameter types." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions-interlude.md:8 msgid "Default values are not supported:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions-interlude.md:9 msgid "All call sites have the same number of arguments." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions-interlude.md:10 msgid "Macros are sometimes used as an alternative." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions-interlude.md:12 msgid "However, function parameters can be generic:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions-interlude.md:14 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn pick_one(a: T, b: T) -> T {\n" " if std::process::id() % 2 == 0 { a } else { b }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"coin toss: {}\", pick_one(\"heads\", \"tails\"));\n" " println!(\"cash prize: {}\", pick_one(500, 1000));\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/functions-interlude.md:27 msgid "" "When using generics, the standard library's `Into` can provide a kind of " "limited polymorphism on argument types. We will see more details in a later " "section." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/morning.md:1 msgid "Day 1: Morning Exercises" msgstr "Dag 1: formiddagsøvelser" #: src/exercises/day-1/morning.md:3 msgid "In these exercises, we will explore two parts of Rust:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/morning.md:5 msgid "Implicit conversions between types." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/morning.md:7 msgid "Arrays and `for` loops." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/morning.md:11 msgid "A few things to consider while solving the exercises:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/morning.md:13 msgid "" "Use a local Rust installation, if possible. This way you can get auto-" "completion in your editor. See the page about [Using Cargo](../../cargo.md) " "for details on installing Rust." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/morning.md:17 msgid "Alternatively, use the Rust Playground." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/morning.md:19 msgid "" "The code snippets are not editable on purpose: the inline code snippets lose " "their state if you navigate away from the page." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/morning.md:22 src/exercises/day-2/morning.md:11 #: src/exercises/day-3/morning.md:7 src/exercises/bare-metal/morning.md:7 #: src/exercises/concurrency/morning.md:12 msgid "" "After looking at the exercises, you can look at the [solutions](solutions-" "morning.md) provided." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/implicit-conversions.md:3 msgid "" "Rust will not automatically apply _implicit conversions_ between types " "([unlike C++](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/" "implicit_conversion)). You can see this in a program like this:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/implicit-conversions.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "fn multiply(x: i16, y: i16) -> i16 {\n" " x * y\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let x: i8 = 15;\n" " let y: i16 = 1000;\n" "\n" " println!(\"{x} * {y} = {}\", multiply(x, y));\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/implicit-conversions.md:19 msgid "" "The Rust integer types all implement the [`From`](https://doc.rust-lang." "org/std/convert/trait.From.html) and [`Into`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/" "std/convert/trait.Into.html) traits to let us convert between them. The " "`From` trait has a single `from()` method and similarly, the `Into` " "trait has a single `into()` method. Implementing these traits is how a type " "expresses that it can be converted into another type." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/implicit-conversions.md:25 msgid "" "The standard library has an implementation of `From for i16`, which " "means that we can convert a variable `x` of type `i8` to an `i16` by " "calling `i16::from(x)`. Or, simpler, with `x.into()`, because `From for " "i16` implementation automatically create an implementation of `Into for " "i8`." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/implicit-conversions.md:30 msgid "" "The same applies for your own `From` implementations for your own types, so " "it is sufficient to only implement `From` to get a respective `Into` " "implementation automatically." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/implicit-conversions.md:33 msgid "Execute the above program and look at the compiler error." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/implicit-conversions.md:35 msgid "Update the code above to use `into()` to do the conversion." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/implicit-conversions.md:37 msgid "" "Change the types of `x` and `y` to other things (such as `f32`, `bool`, " "`i128`) to see which types you can convert to which other types. Try " "converting small types to big types and the other way around. Check the " "[standard library documentation](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/trait." "From.html) to see if `From` is implemented for the pairs you check." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:1 #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-morning.md:3 msgid "Arrays and `for` Loops" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:3 msgid "We saw that an array can be declared like this:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:5 msgid "" "```rust\n" "let array = [10, 20, 30];\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:9 msgid "" "You can print such an array by asking for its debug representation with `{:?}" "`:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:11 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let array = [10, 20, 30];\n" " println!(\"array: {array:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:18 msgid "" "Rust lets you iterate over things like arrays and ranges using the `for` " "keyword:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:21 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let array = [10, 20, 30];\n" " print!(\"Iterating over array:\");\n" " for n in &array {\n" " print!(\" {n}\");\n" " }\n" " println!();\n" "\n" " print!(\"Iterating over range:\");\n" " for i in 0..3 {\n" " print!(\" {}\", array[i]);\n" " }\n" " println!();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:38 msgid "" "Use the above to write a function `pretty_print` which pretty-print a matrix " "and a function `transpose` which will transpose a matrix (turn rows into " "columns):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:41 msgid "" "```bob\n" " ⎛⎡1 2 3⎤⎞ ⎡1 4 7⎤\n" "\"transpose\"⎜⎢4 5 6⎥⎟ \"==\"⎢2 5 8⎥\n" " ⎝⎣7 8 9⎦⎠ ⎣3 6 9⎦\n" "```" msgstr "" "```bob\n" " ⎛⎡1 2 3⎤⎞ ⎡1 4 7⎤\n" "\"transpose\"⎜⎢4 5 6⎥⎟ \"==\"⎢2 5 8⎥\n" " ⎝⎣7 8 9⎦⎠ ⎣3 6 9⎦\n" "```" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:47 msgid "Hard-code both functions to operate on 3 × 3 matrices." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:49 msgid "" "Copy the code below to and implement the " "functions:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:52 msgid "" "```rust,should_panic\n" "// TODO: remove this when you're done with your implementation.\n" "#![allow(unused_variables, dead_code)]\n" "\n" "fn transpose(matrix: [[i32; 3]; 3]) -> [[i32; 3]; 3] {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn pretty_print(matrix: &[[i32; 3]; 3]) {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let matrix = [\n" " [101, 102, 103], // <-- the comment makes rustfmt add a newline\n" " [201, 202, 203],\n" " [301, 302, 303],\n" " ];\n" "\n" " println!(\"matrix:\");\n" " pretty_print(&matrix);\n" "\n" " let transposed = transpose(matrix);\n" " println!(\"transposed:\");\n" " pretty_print(&transposed);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:80 msgid "Bonus Question" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:82 msgid "" "Could you use `&[i32]` slices instead of hard-coded 3 × 3 matrices for your " "argument and return types? Something like `&[&[i32]]` for a two-dimensional " "slice-of-slices. Why or why not?" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:87 msgid "" "See the [`ndarray` crate](https://docs.rs/ndarray/) for a production quality " "implementation." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:92 msgid "" "The solution and the answer to the bonus section are available in the " "[Solution](solutions-morning.md#arrays-and-for-loops) section." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:95 msgid "" "The use of the reference `&array` within `for n in &array` is a subtle " "preview of issues of ownership that will come later in the afternoon." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:98 msgid "Without the `&`..." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:99 msgid "" "The loop would have been one that consumes the array. This is a change " "[introduced in the 2021 Edition](https://doc.rust-lang.org/edition-guide/" "rust-2021/IntoIterator-for-arrays.html)." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/for-loops.md:102 msgid "" "An implicit array copy would have occured. Since `i32` is a copy type, then " "`[i32; 3]` is also a copy type." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/variables.md:3 msgid "" "Rust provides type safety via static typing. Variable bindings are immutable " "by default:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/variables.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let x: i32 = 10;\n" " println!(\"x: {x}\");\n" " // x = 20;\n" " // println!(\"x: {x}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/variables.md:17 msgid "" "Due to type inference the `i32` is optional. We will gradually show the " "types less and less as the course progresses." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/type-inference.md:3 msgid "Rust will look at how the variable is _used_ to determine the type:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/type-inference.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn takes_u32(x: u32) {\n" " println!(\"u32: {x}\");\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn takes_i8(y: i8) {\n" " println!(\"i8: {y}\");\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let x = 10;\n" " let y = 20;\n" "\n" " takes_u32(x);\n" " takes_i8(y);\n" " // takes_u32(y);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/type-inference.md:26 msgid "" "This slide demonstrates how the Rust compiler infers types based on " "constraints given by variable declarations and usages." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/type-inference.md:28 msgid "" "It is very important to emphasize that variables declared like this are not " "of some sort of dynamic \"any type\" that can hold any data. The machine " "code generated by such declaration is identical to the explicit declaration " "of a type. The compiler does the job for us and helps us write more concise " "code." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/type-inference.md:32 msgid "" "The following code tells the compiler to copy into a certain generic " "container without the code ever explicitly specifying the contained type, " "using `_` as a placeholder:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/type-inference.md:34 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut v = Vec::new();\n" " v.push((10, false));\n" " v.push((20, true));\n" " println!(\"v: {v:?}\");\n" "\n" " let vv = v.iter().collect::>();\n" " println!(\"vv: {vv:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/type-inference.md:46 msgid "" "[`collect`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/std/iter/trait.Iterator." "html#method.collect) relies on [`FromIterator`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/" "std/iter/trait.FromIterator.html), which [`HashSet`](https://doc.rust-lang." "org/std/collections/struct.HashSet.html#impl-FromIterator%3CT%3E-for-" "HashSet%3CT,+S%3E) implements." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:1 msgid "Static and Constant Variables" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:3 msgid "" "Static and constant variables are two different ways to create globally-" "scoped values that cannot be moved or reallocated during the execution of " "the program. " msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:6 msgid "`const`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:8 msgid "" "Constant variables are evaluated at compile time and their values are " "inlined wherever they are used:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:11 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "const DIGEST_SIZE: usize = 3;\n" "const ZERO: Option = Some(42);\n" "\n" "fn compute_digest(text: &str) -> [u8; DIGEST_SIZE] {\n" " let mut digest = [ZERO.unwrap_or(0); DIGEST_SIZE];\n" " for (idx, &b) in text.as_bytes().iter().enumerate() {\n" " digest[idx % DIGEST_SIZE] = digest[idx % DIGEST_SIZE]." "wrapping_add(b);\n" " }\n" " digest\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let digest = compute_digest(\"Hello\");\n" " println!(\"Digest: {digest:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:29 msgid "" "According to the [Rust RFC Book](https://rust-lang.github.io/rfcs/0246-const-" "vs-static.html) these are inlined upon use." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:31 msgid "" "Only functions marked `const` can be called at compile time to generate " "`const` values. `const` functions can however be called at runtime." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:33 msgid "`static`" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:35 msgid "" "Static variables will live during the whole execution of the program, and " "therefore will not move:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:37 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "static BANNER: &str = \"Welcome to RustOS 3.14\";\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"{BANNER}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:45 msgid "" "As noted in the [Rust RFC Book](https://rust-lang.github.io/rfcs/0246-const-" "vs-static.html), these are not inlined upon use and have an actual " "associated memory location. This is useful for unsafe and embedded code, " "and the variable lives through the entirety of the program execution. When a " "globally-scoped value does not have a reason to need object identity, " "`const` is generally preferred." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:49 msgid "" "Because `static` variables are accessible from any thread, they must be " "`Sync`. Interior mutability is possible through a [`Mutex`](https://doc.rust-" "lang.org/std/sync/struct.Mutex.html), atomic or similar. It is also possible " "to have mutable statics, but they require manual synchronisation so any " "access to them requires `unsafe` code. We will look at [mutable statics](../" "unsafe/mutable-static-variables.md) in the chapter on Unsafe Rust." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:57 msgid "Mention that `const` behaves semantically similar to C++'s `constexpr`." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:58 msgid "" "`static`, on the other hand, is much more similar to a `const` or mutable " "global variable in C++." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:59 msgid "" "`static` provides object identity: an address in memory and state as " "required by types with interior mutability such as `Mutex`." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:60 msgid "" "It isn't super common that one would need a runtime evaluated constant, but " "it is helpful and safer than using a static." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:61 msgid "`thread_local` data can be created with the macro `std::thread_local`." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:63 msgid "Properties table:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:65 msgid "Property" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:65 msgid "Static" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:65 msgid "Constant" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:67 msgid "Has an address in memory" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:67 #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:68 #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:70 #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:71 msgid "Yes" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:67 msgid "No (inlined)" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:68 msgid "Lives for the entire duration of the program" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:68 #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:69 #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:71 msgid "No" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:69 msgid "Can be mutable" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:69 msgid "Yes (unsafe)" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:70 msgid "Evaluated at compile time" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:70 msgid "Yes (initialised at compile time)" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/static-and-const.md:71 msgid "Inlined wherever it is used" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scopes-shadowing.md:3 msgid "" "You can shadow variables, both those from outer scopes and variables from " "the same scope:" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scopes-shadowing.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let a = 10;\n" " println!(\"before: {a}\");\n" "\n" " {\n" " let a = \"hello\";\n" " println!(\"inner scope: {a}\");\n" "\n" " let a = true;\n" " println!(\"shadowed in inner scope: {a}\");\n" " }\n" "\n" " println!(\"after: {a}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scopes-shadowing.md:25 msgid "" "Definition: Shadowing is different from mutation, because after shadowing " "both variable's memory locations exist at the same time. Both are available " "under the same name, depending where you use it in the code. " msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scopes-shadowing.md:26 msgid "A shadowing variable can have a different type. " msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scopes-shadowing.md:27 msgid "" "Shadowing looks obscure at first, but is convenient for holding on to values " "after `.unwrap()`." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scopes-shadowing.md:28 msgid "" "The following code demonstrates why the compiler can't simply reuse memory " "locations when shadowing an immutable variable in a scope, even if the type " "does not change." msgstr "" #: src/basic-syntax/scopes-shadowing.md:30 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let a = 1;\n" " let b = &a;\n" " let a = a + 1;\n" " println!(\"{a} {b}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management.md:3 msgid "Traditionally, languages have fallen into two broad categories:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management.md:5 msgid "Full control via manual memory management: C, C++, Pascal, ..." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management.md:6 msgid "" "Full safety via automatic memory management at runtime: Java, Python, Go, " "Haskell, ..." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management.md:8 msgid "Rust offers a new mix:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management.md:10 msgid "" "Full control _and_ safety via compile time enforcement of correct memory " "management." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management.md:13 msgid "It does this with an explicit ownership concept." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management.md:15 msgid "First, let's refresh how memory management works." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack-vs-heap.md:1 msgid "The Stack vs The Heap" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack-vs-heap.md:3 msgid "Stack: Continuous area of memory for local variables." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack-vs-heap.md:4 msgid "Values have fixed sizes known at compile time." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack-vs-heap.md:5 msgid "Extremely fast: just move a stack pointer." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack-vs-heap.md:6 msgid "Easy to manage: follows function calls." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack-vs-heap.md:7 msgid "Great memory locality." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack-vs-heap.md:9 msgid "Heap: Storage of values outside of function calls." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack-vs-heap.md:10 msgid "Values have dynamic sizes determined at runtime." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack-vs-heap.md:11 msgid "Slightly slower than the stack: some book-keeping needed." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack-vs-heap.md:12 msgid "No guarantee of memory locality." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack.md:1 #, fuzzy msgid "Stack and Heap Example" msgstr "Stak og heap" #: src/memory-management/stack.md:3 msgid "" "Creating a `String` puts fixed-sized metadata on the stack and dynamically " "sized data, the actual string, on the heap:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let s1 = String::from(\"Hello\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack.md:12 msgid "" "```bob\n" " Stack Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": s1 : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : +----+----+----+----+----+ :\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+-----+-->| H | e | l | l | o | :\n" ": | len | 5 | : : +----+----+----+----+----+ :\n" ": | capacity | 5 | : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : :\n" ": : `- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "`- - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "```" msgstr "" "```bob\n" " Stak Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": s1 : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : +----+----+----+----+----+ :\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+-----+-->| H | a | l | l | o | :\n" ": | len | 5 | : : +----+----+----+----+----+ :\n" ": | capacity | 5 | : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : :\n" ": : `- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "`- - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "```" #: src/memory-management/stack.md:28 msgid "" "Mention that a `String` is backed by a `Vec`, so it has a capacity and " "length and can grow if mutable via reallocation on the heap." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack.md:30 msgid "" "If students ask about it, you can mention that the underlying memory is heap " "allocated using the [System Allocator](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/alloc/" "struct.System.html) and custom allocators can be implemented using the " "[Allocator API](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/alloc/index.html)" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack.md:32 msgid "" "We can inspect the memory layout with `unsafe` code. However, you should " "point out that this is rightfully unsafe!" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/stack.md:34 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut s1 = String::from(\"Hello\");\n" " s1.push(' ');\n" " s1.push_str(\"world\");\n" " // DON'T DO THIS AT HOME! For educational purposes only.\n" " // String provides no guarantees about its layout, so this could lead " "to\n" " // undefined behavior.\n" " unsafe {\n" " let (ptr, capacity, len): (usize, usize, usize) = std::mem::" "transmute(s1);\n" " println!(\"ptr = {ptr:#x}, len = {len}, capacity = {capacity}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/manual.md:3 msgid "You allocate and deallocate heap memory yourself." msgstr "Du allokerer og deallokerer din heap-memory." #: src/memory-management/manual.md:5 msgid "" "If not done with care, this can lead to crashes, bugs, security " "vulnerabilities, and memory leaks." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/manual.md:7 msgid "C Example" msgstr "C-eksempel" #: src/memory-management/manual.md:9 msgid "You must call `free` on every pointer you allocate with `malloc`:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/manual.md:11 msgid "" "```c\n" "void foo(size_t n) {\n" " int* int_array = malloc(n * sizeof(int));\n" " //\n" " // ... lots of code\n" " //\n" " free(int_array);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/manual.md:21 msgid "" "Memory is leaked if the function returns early between `malloc` and `free`: " "the pointer is lost and we cannot deallocate the memory. Worse, freeing the " "pointer twice, or accessing a freed pointer can lead to exploitable security " "vulnerabilities." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/scope-based.md:3 msgid "" "Constructors and destructors let you hook into the lifetime of an object." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/scope-based.md:5 msgid "" "By wrapping a pointer in an object, you can free memory when the object is " "destroyed. The compiler guarantees that this happens, even if an exception " "is raised." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/scope-based.md:9 msgid "" "This is often called _resource acquisition is initialization_ (RAII) and " "gives you smart pointers." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/scope-based.md:12 msgid "C++ Example" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/scope-based.md:14 msgid "" "```c++\n" "void say_hello(std::unique_ptr person) {\n" " std::cout << \"Hello \" << person->name << std::endl;\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/scope-based.md:20 msgid "" "The `std::unique_ptr` object is allocated on the stack, and points to memory " "allocated on the heap." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/scope-based.md:22 msgid "At the end of `say_hello`, the `std::unique_ptr` destructor will run." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/scope-based.md:23 msgid "The destructor frees the `Person` object it points to." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/scope-based.md:25 msgid "" "Special move constructors are used when passing ownership to a function:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/scope-based.md:27 msgid "" "```c++\n" "std::unique_ptr person = find_person(\"Carla\");\n" "say_hello(std::move(person));\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/garbage-collection.md:1 msgid "Automatic Memory Management" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/garbage-collection.md:3 msgid "" "An alternative to manual and scope-based memory management is automatic " "memory management:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/garbage-collection.md:6 msgid "The programmer never allocates or deallocates memory explicitly." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/garbage-collection.md:7 msgid "" "A garbage collector finds unused memory and deallocates it for the " "programmer." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/garbage-collection.md:9 msgid "Java Example" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/garbage-collection.md:11 msgid "The `person` object is not deallocated after `sayHello` returns:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/garbage-collection.md:13 msgid "" "```java\n" "void sayHello(Person person) {\n" " System.out.println(\"Hello \" + person.getName());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/rust.md:1 msgid "Memory Management in Rust" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/rust.md:3 msgid "Memory management in Rust is a mix:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/rust.md:5 msgid "Safe and correct like Java, but without a garbage collector." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/rust.md:6 msgid "" "Depending on which abstraction (or combination of abstractions) you choose, " "can be a single unique pointer, reference counted, or atomically reference " "counted." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/rust.md:7 msgid "Scope-based like C++, but the compiler enforces full adherence." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/rust.md:8 msgid "" "A Rust user can choose the right abstraction for the situation, some even " "have no cost at runtime like C." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/rust.md:10 msgid "Rust achieves this by modeling _ownership_ explicitly." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/rust.md:14 msgid "" "If asked how at this point, you can mention that in Rust this is usually " "handled by RAII wrapper types such as [Box](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/" "boxed/struct.Box.html), [Vec](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/vec/struct.Vec." "html), [Rc](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/rc/struct.Rc.html), or [Arc]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.Arc.html). These encapsulate " "ownership and memory allocation via various means, and prevent the potential " "errors in C." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/rust.md:16 msgid "" "You may be asked about destructors here, the [Drop](https://doc.rust-lang." "org/std/ops/trait.Drop.html) trait is the Rust equivalent." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:3 msgid "Here is a rough comparison of the memory management techniques." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:5 msgid "Pros of Different Memory Management Techniques" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:7 src/memory-management/comparison.md:22 msgid "Manual like C:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:8 src/memory-management/comparison.md:14 #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:17 msgid "No runtime overhead." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:9 src/memory-management/comparison.md:26 msgid "Automatic like Java:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:10 msgid "Fully automatic." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:11 #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:18 msgid "Safe and correct." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:12 #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:29 msgid "Scope-based like C++:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:13 msgid "Partially automatic." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:15 msgid "Compiler-enforced scope-based like Rust:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:16 msgid "Enforced by compiler." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:20 msgid "Cons of Different Memory Management Techniques" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:23 msgid "Use-after-free." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:24 msgid "Double-frees." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:25 msgid "Memory leaks." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:27 msgid "Garbage collection pauses." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:28 msgid "Destructor delays." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:30 msgid "Complex, opt-in by programmer (on C++)." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:31 msgid "Circular references can lead to memory leaks" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:32 msgid "Potential runtime overhead" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:33 msgid "Compiler-enforced and scope-based like Rust:" msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:34 msgid "Some upfront complexity." msgstr "" #: src/memory-management/comparison.md:35 msgid "Can reject valid programs." msgstr "" #: src/ownership.md:3 msgid "" "All variable bindings have a _scope_ where they are valid and it is an error " "to use a variable outside its scope:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "struct Point(i32, i32);\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " {\n" " let p = Point(3, 4);\n" " println!(\"x: {}\", p.0);\n" " }\n" " println!(\"y: {}\", p.1);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership.md:18 msgid "" "At the end of the scope, the variable is _dropped_ and the data is freed." msgstr "" #: src/ownership.md:19 msgid "A destructor can run here to free up resources." msgstr "" #: src/ownership.md:20 msgid "We say that the variable _owns_ the value." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/move-semantics.md:3 msgid "An assignment will transfer _ownership_ between variables:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/move-semantics.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let s1: String = String::from(\"Hello!\");\n" " let s2: String = s1;\n" " println!(\"s2: {s2}\");\n" " // println!(\"s1: {s1}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/move-semantics.md:14 msgid "The assignment of `s1` to `s2` transfers ownership." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/move-semantics.md:15 msgid "When `s1` goes out of scope, nothing happens: it does not own anything." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/move-semantics.md:16 msgid "When `s2` goes out of scope, the string data is freed." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/move-semantics.md:17 msgid "There is always _exactly_ one variable binding which owns a value." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/move-semantics.md:21 msgid "" "Mention that this is the opposite of the defaults in C++, which copies by " "value unless you use `std::move` (and the move constructor is defined!)." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/move-semantics.md:23 msgid "" "It is only the ownership that moves. Whether any machine code is generated " "to manipulate the data itself is a matter of optimization, and such copies " "are aggressively optimized away." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/move-semantics.md:25 msgid "" "Simple values (such as integers) can be marked `Copy` (see later slides)." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/move-semantics.md:27 msgid "In Rust, clones are explicit (by using `clone`)." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moved-strings-rust.md:3 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let s1: String = String::from(\"Rust\");\n" " let s2: String = s1;\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moved-strings-rust.md:10 msgid "The heap data from `s1` is reused for `s2`." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moved-strings-rust.md:11 msgid "When `s1` goes out of scope, nothing happens (it has been moved from)." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moved-strings-rust.md:13 msgid "Before move to `s2`:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moved-strings-rust.md:15 msgid "" "```bob\n" " Stack Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - - - -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": s1 : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : +----+----+----+----+ :\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+-----+-->| R | u | s | t | :\n" ": | len | 4 | : : +----+----+----+----+ :\n" ": | capacity | 4 | : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : :\n" ": : `- - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" ": :\n" "`- - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moved-strings-rust.md:30 msgid "After move to `s2`:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moved-strings-rust.md:32 msgid "" "```bob\n" " Stack Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - - - -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": s1 \"(inaccessible)\" : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : +----+----+----+----+ :\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+--+--+-->| R | u | s | t | :\n" ": | len | 4 | : | : +----+----+----+----+ :\n" ": | capacity | 4 | : | : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : | : :\n" ": : | `- - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" ": s2 : |\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : |\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+--'\n" ": | len | 4 | :\n" ": | capacity | 4 | :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ :\n" ": :\n" "`- - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "```" msgstr "" "```bob\n" " Stak Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - - - -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": s1 \"(utilgængelig)\" : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : +----+----+----+----+ :\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+--+--+-->| R | u | s | t | :\n" ": | len | 4 | : | : +----+----+----+----+ :\n" ": | capacity | 4 | : | : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : | : :\n" ": : | `- - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" ": s2 : |\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : |\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+--'\n" ": | len | 4 | :\n" ": | capacity | 4 | :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ :\n" ": :\n" "`- - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "```" #: src/ownership/double-free-modern-cpp.md:1 #, fuzzy msgid "Extra Work in Modern C++" msgstr "Dobbeltfrigivelser i moderne C++" #: src/ownership/double-free-modern-cpp.md:3 msgid "Modern C++ solves this differently:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/double-free-modern-cpp.md:5 msgid "" "```c++\n" "std::string s1 = \"Cpp\";\n" "std::string s2 = s1; // Duplicate the data in s1.\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/double-free-modern-cpp.md:10 msgid "" "The heap data from `s1` is duplicated and `s2` gets its own independent copy." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/double-free-modern-cpp.md:11 msgid "When `s1` and `s2` go out of scope, they each free their own memory." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/double-free-modern-cpp.md:13 msgid "Before copy-assignment:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/double-free-modern-cpp.md:16 msgid "" "```bob\n" " Stack Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": s1 : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : +----+----+----+ :\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+--+--+-->| C | p | p | :\n" ": | len | 3 | : : +----+----+----+ :\n" ": | capacity | 3 | : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : :\n" ": : `- - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "`- - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/double-free-modern-cpp.md:30 msgid "After copy-assignment:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/double-free-modern-cpp.md:32 msgid "" "```bob\n" " Stack Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": s1 : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : +----+----+----+ :\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+--+--+-->| C | p | p | :\n" ": | len | 3 | : : +----+----+----+ :\n" ": | capacity | 3 | : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : :\n" ": : : :\n" ": s2 : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : +----+----+----+ :\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+-----+-->| C | p | p | :\n" ": | len | 3 | : : +----+----+----+ :\n" ": | capacity | 3 | : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : :\n" ": : `- - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "`- - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "```" msgstr "" "```bob\n" " Stak Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": s1 : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : +----+----+----+ :\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+--+--+-->| C | p | p | :\n" ": | len | 3 | : : +----+----+----+ :\n" ": | capacity | 3 | : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : :\n" ": : : :\n" ": s2 : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : +----+----+----+ :\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+-----+-->| C | p | p | :\n" ": | len | 3 | : : +----+----+----+ :\n" ": | capacity | 3 | : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : :\n" ": : `- - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "`- - - - - - - - - - - - - -'\n" "```" #: src/ownership/moves-function-calls.md:3 msgid "" "When you pass a value to a function, the value is assigned to the function " "parameter. This transfers ownership:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moves-function-calls.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn say_hello(name: String) {\n" " println!(\"Hello {name}\")\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let name = String::from(\"Alice\");\n" " say_hello(name);\n" " // say_hello(name);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moves-function-calls.md:20 msgid "" "With the first call to `say_hello`, `main` gives up ownership of `name`. " "Afterwards, `name` cannot be used anymore within `main`." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moves-function-calls.md:21 msgid "" "The heap memory allocated for `name` will be freed at the end of the " "`say_hello` function." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moves-function-calls.md:22 msgid "" "`main` can retain ownership if it passes `name` as a reference (`&name`) and " "if `say_hello` accepts a reference as a parameter." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moves-function-calls.md:23 msgid "" "Alternatively, `main` can pass a clone of `name` in the first call (`name." "clone()`)." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/moves-function-calls.md:24 msgid "" "Rust makes it harder than C++ to inadvertently create copies by making move " "semantics the default, and by forcing programmers to make clones explicit." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:3 msgid "" "While move semantics are the default, certain types are copied by default:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let x = 42;\n" " let y = x;\n" " println!(\"x: {x}\");\n" " println!(\"y: {y}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:14 msgid "These types implement the `Copy` trait." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:16 msgid "You can opt-in your own types to use copy semantics:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:18 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug)]\n" "struct Point(i32, i32);\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let p1 = Point(3, 4);\n" " let p2 = p1;\n" " println!(\"p1: {p1:?}\");\n" " println!(\"p2: {p2:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:30 msgid "After the assignment, both `p1` and `p2` own their own data." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:31 msgid "We can also use `p1.clone()` to explicitly copy the data." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:35 msgid "Copying and cloning are not the same thing:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:37 msgid "" "Copying refers to bitwise copies of memory regions and does not work on " "arbitrary objects." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:38 msgid "" "Copying does not allow for custom logic (unlike copy constructors in C++)." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:39 msgid "" "Cloning is a more general operation and also allows for custom behavior by " "implementing the `Clone` trait." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:40 msgid "Copying does not work on types that implement the `Drop` trait." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:42 src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:29 msgid "In the above example, try the following:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:44 msgid "" "Add a `String` field to `struct Point`. It will not compile because `String` " "is not a `Copy` type." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:45 msgid "" "Remove `Copy` from the `derive` attribute. The compiler error is now in the " "`println!` for `p1`." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:46 msgid "Show that it works if you clone `p1` instead." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/copy-clone.md:48 msgid "" "If students ask about `derive`, it is sufficient to say that this is a way " "to generate code in Rust at compile time. In this case the default " "implementations of `Copy` and `Clone` traits are generated." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/borrowing.md:3 msgid "" "Instead of transferring ownership when calling a function, you can let a " "function _borrow_ the value:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/borrowing.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Point(i32, i32);\n" "\n" "fn add(p1: &Point, p2: &Point) -> Point {\n" " Point(p1.0 + p2.0, p1.1 + p2.1)\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let p1 = Point(3, 4);\n" " let p2 = Point(10, 20);\n" " let p3 = add(&p1, &p2);\n" " println!(\"{p1:?} + {p2:?} = {p3:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/borrowing.md:22 msgid "The `add` function _borrows_ two points and returns a new point." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/borrowing.md:23 msgid "The caller retains ownership of the inputs." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/borrowing.md:27 msgid "Notes on stack returns:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/borrowing.md:28 msgid "" "Demonstrate that the return from `add` is cheap because the compiler can " "eliminate the copy operation. Change the above code to print stack addresses " "and run it on the [Playground](https://play.rust-lang.org/) or look at the " "assembly in [Godbolt](https://rust.godbolt.org/). In the \"DEBUG\" " "optimization level, the addresses should change, while they stay the same " "when changing to the \"RELEASE\" setting:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/borrowing.md:30 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Point(i32, i32);\n" "\n" "fn add(p1: &Point, p2: &Point) -> Point {\n" " let p = Point(p1.0 + p2.0, p1.1 + p2.1);\n" " println!(\"&p.0: {:p}\", &p.0);\n" " p\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub fn main() {\n" " let p1 = Point(3, 4);\n" " let p2 = Point(10, 20);\n" " let p3 = add(&p1, &p2);\n" " println!(\"&p3.0: {:p}\", &p3.0);\n" " println!(\"{p1:?} + {p2:?} = {p3:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/borrowing.md:48 msgid "The Rust compiler can do return value optimization (RVO)." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/borrowing.md:49 msgid "" "In C++, copy elision has to be defined in the language specification because " "constructors can have side effects. In Rust, this is not an issue at all. If " "RVO did not happen, Rust will always perform a simple and efficient `memcpy` " "copy." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/shared-unique-borrows.md:3 msgid "Rust puts constraints on the ways you can borrow values:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/shared-unique-borrows.md:5 msgid "You can have one or more `&T` values at any given time, _or_" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/shared-unique-borrows.md:6 msgid "You can have exactly one `&mut T` value." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/shared-unique-borrows.md:8 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut a: i32 = 10;\n" " let b: &i32 = &a;\n" "\n" " {\n" " let c: &mut i32 = &mut a;\n" " *c = 20;\n" " }\n" "\n" " println!(\"a: {a}\");\n" " println!(\"b: {b}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/shared-unique-borrows.md:25 msgid "" "The above code does not compile because `a` is borrowed as mutable (through " "`c`) and as immutable (through `b`) at the same time." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/shared-unique-borrows.md:26 msgid "" "Move the `println!` statement for `b` before the scope that introduces `c` " "to make the code compile." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/shared-unique-borrows.md:27 msgid "" "After that change, the compiler realizes that `b` is only ever used before " "the new mutable borrow of `a` through `c`. This is a feature of the borrow " "checker called \"non-lexical lifetimes\"." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes.md:3 msgid "A borrowed value has a _lifetime_:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes.md:5 msgid "The lifetime can be implicit: `add(p1: &Point, p2: &Point) -> Point`." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes.md:6 msgid "Lifetimes can also be explicit: `&'a Point`, `&'document str`." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes.md:7 src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:23 msgid "" "Read `&'a Point` as \"a borrowed `Point` which is valid for at least the " "lifetime `a`\"." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes.md:9 msgid "" "Lifetimes are always inferred by the compiler: you cannot assign a lifetime " "yourself." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes.md:11 msgid "" "Lifetime annotations create constraints; the compiler verifies that there is " "a valid solution." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes.md:13 msgid "" "Lifetimes for function arguments and return values must be fully specified, " "but Rust allows lifetimes to be elided in most cases with [a few simple " "rules](https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/lifetime-elision.html)." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:3 msgid "" "In addition to borrowing its arguments, a function can return a borrowed " "value:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Point(i32, i32);\n" "\n" "fn left_most<'a>(p1: &'a Point, p2: &'a Point) -> &'a Point {\n" " if p1.0 < p2.0 { p1 } else { p2 }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let p1: Point = Point(10, 10);\n" " let p2: Point = Point(20, 20);\n" " let p3: &Point = left_most(&p1, &p2);\n" " println!(\"left-most point: {:?}\", p3);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:21 msgid "`'a` is a generic parameter, it is inferred by the compiler." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:22 msgid "Lifetimes start with `'` and `'a` is a typical default name." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:25 msgid "" "The _at least_ part is important when parameters are in different scopes." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:31 msgid "" "Move the declaration of `p2` and `p3` into a new scope (`{ ... }`), " "resulting in the following code:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:32 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Point(i32, i32);\n" "\n" "fn left_most<'a>(p1: &'a Point, p2: &'a Point) -> &'a Point {\n" " if p1.0 < p2.0 { p1 } else { p2 }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let p1: Point = Point(10, 10);\n" " let p3: &Point;\n" " {\n" " let p2: Point = Point(20, 20);\n" " p3 = left_most(&p1, &p2);\n" " }\n" " println!(\"left-most point: {:?}\", p3);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:50 msgid "Note how this does not compile since `p3` outlives `p2`." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:52 msgid "" "Reset the workspace and change the function signature to `fn left_most<'a, " "'b>(p1: &'a Point, p2: &'a Point) -> &'b Point`. This will not compile " "because the relationship between the lifetimes `'a` and `'b` is unclear." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:53 msgid "Another way to explain it:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:54 msgid "" "Two references to two values are borrowed by a function and the function " "returns another reference." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:56 msgid "" "It must have come from one of those two inputs (or from a global variable)." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-function-calls.md:57 msgid "" "Which one is it? The compiler needs to know, so at the call site the " "returned reference is not used for longer than a variable from where the " "reference came from." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-data-structures.md:3 msgid "" "If a data type stores borrowed data, it must be annotated with a lifetime:" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-data-structures.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Highlight<'doc>(&'doc str);\n" "\n" "fn erase(text: String) {\n" " println!(\"Bye {text}!\");\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let text = String::from(\"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog." "\");\n" " let fox = Highlight(&text[4..19]);\n" " let dog = Highlight(&text[35..43]);\n" " // erase(text);\n" " println!(\"{fox:?}\");\n" " println!(\"{dog:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-data-structures.md:25 msgid "" "In the above example, the annotation on `Highlight` enforces that the data " "underlying the contained `&str` lives at least as long as any instance of " "`Highlight` that uses that data." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-data-structures.md:26 msgid "" "If `text` is consumed before the end of the lifetime of `fox` (or `dog`), " "the borrow checker throws an error." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-data-structures.md:27 msgid "" "Types with borrowed data force users to hold on to the original data. This " "can be useful for creating lightweight views, but it generally makes them " "somewhat harder to use." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-data-structures.md:28 msgid "When possible, make data structures own their data directly." msgstr "" #: src/ownership/lifetimes-data-structures.md:29 msgid "" "Some structs with multiple references inside can have more than one lifetime " "annotation. This can be necessary if there is a need to describe lifetime " "relationships between the references themselves, in addition to the lifetime " "of the struct itself. Those are very advanced use cases." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/afternoon.md:1 msgid "Day 1: Afternoon Exercises" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/afternoon.md:3 msgid "We will look at two things:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/afternoon.md:5 msgid "A small book library," msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/afternoon.md:7 msgid "Iterators and ownership (hard)." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/afternoon.md:11 src/exercises/day-2/afternoon.md:7 #: src/exercises/bare-metal/afternoon.md:7 #: src/exercises/concurrency/afternoon.md:13 msgid "" "After looking at the exercises, you can look at the [solutions](solutions-" "afternoon.md) provided." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/book-library.md:3 msgid "" "We will learn much more about structs and the `Vec` type tomorrow. For " "now, you just need to know part of its API:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/book-library.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut vec = vec![10, 20];\n" " vec.push(30);\n" " let midpoint = vec.len() / 2;\n" " println!(\"middle value: {}\", vec[midpoint]);\n" " for item in &vec {\n" " println!(\"item: {item}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/book-library.md:18 msgid "" "Use this to model a library's book collection. Copy the code below to " " and update the types to make it compile:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/book-library.md:21 msgid "" "```rust,should_panic\n" "struct Library {\n" " books: Vec,\n" "}\n" "\n" "struct Book {\n" " title: String,\n" " year: u16,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Book {\n" " // This is a constructor, used below.\n" " fn new(title: &str, year: u16) -> Book {\n" " Book {\n" " title: String::from(title),\n" " year,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// Implement the methods below. Update the `self` parameter to\n" "// indicate the method's required level of ownership over the object:\n" "//\n" "// - `&self` for shared read-only access,\n" "// - `&mut self` for unique and mutable access,\n" "// - `self` for unique access by value.\n" "impl Library {\n" " fn new() -> Library {\n" " todo!(\"Initialize and return a `Library` value\")\n" " }\n" "\n" " //fn len(self) -> usize {\n" " // todo!(\"Return the length of `self.books`\")\n" " //}\n" "\n" " //fn is_empty(self) -> bool {\n" " // todo!(\"Return `true` if `self.books` is empty\")\n" " //}\n" "\n" " //fn add_book(self, book: Book) {\n" " // todo!(\"Add a new book to `self.books`\")\n" " //}\n" "\n" " //fn print_books(self) {\n" " // todo!(\"Iterate over `self.books` and each book's title and " "year\")\n" " //}\n" "\n" " //fn oldest_book(self) -> Option<&Book> {\n" " // todo!(\"Return a reference to the oldest book (if any)\")\n" " //}\n" "}\n" "\n" "// This shows the desired behavior. Uncomment the code below and\n" "// implement the missing methods. You will need to update the\n" "// method signatures, including the \"self\" parameter! You may\n" "// also need to update the variable bindings within main.\n" "fn main() {\n" " let library = Library::new();\n" "\n" " //println!(\"The library is empty: library.is_empty() -> {}\", library." "is_empty());\n" " //\n" " //library.add_book(Book::new(\"Lord of the Rings\", 1954));\n" " //library.add_book(Book::new(\"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\", " "1865));\n" " //\n" " //println!(\"The library is no longer empty: library.is_empty() -> {}\", " "library.is_empty());\n" " //\n" " //\n" " //library.print_books();\n" " //\n" " //match library.oldest_book() {\n" " // Some(book) => println!(\"The oldest book is {}\", book.title),\n" " // None => println!(\"The library is empty!\"),\n" " //}\n" " //\n" " //println!(\"The library has {} books\", library.len());\n" " //library.print_books();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/book-library.md:102 msgid "[Solution](solutions-afternoon.md#designing-a-library)" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:3 msgid "" "The ownership model of Rust affects many APIs. An example of this is the " "[`Iterator`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/iter/trait.Iterator.html) and " "[`IntoIterator`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/iter/trait.IntoIterator.html) " "traits." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:8 src/bare-metal/no_std.md:28 msgid "`Iterator`" msgstr "`Iterator`" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:10 msgid "" "Traits are like interfaces: they describe behavior (methods) for a type. The " "`Iterator` trait simply says that you can call `next` until you get `None` " "back:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:13 msgid "" "```rust\n" "pub trait Iterator {\n" " type Item;\n" " fn next(&mut self) -> Option;\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:20 msgid "You use this trait like this:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:22 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let v: Vec = vec![10, 20, 30];\n" " let mut iter = v.iter();\n" "\n" " println!(\"v[0]: {:?}\", iter.next());\n" " println!(\"v[1]: {:?}\", iter.next());\n" " println!(\"v[2]: {:?}\", iter.next());\n" " println!(\"No more items: {:?}\", iter.next());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:34 msgid "What is the type returned by the iterator? Test your answer here:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:36 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "fn main() {\n" " let v: Vec = vec![10, 20, 30];\n" " let mut iter = v.iter();\n" "\n" " let v0: Option<..> = iter.next();\n" " println!(\"v0: {v0:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:46 msgid "Why is this type used?" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:48 msgid "`IntoIterator`" msgstr "`IntoIterator`" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:50 msgid "" "The `Iterator` trait tells you how to _iterate_ once you have created an " "iterator. The related trait `IntoIterator` tells you how to create the " "iterator:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:53 msgid "" "```rust\n" "pub trait IntoIterator {\n" " type Item;\n" " type IntoIter: Iterator;\n" "\n" " fn into_iter(self) -> Self::IntoIter;\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:62 msgid "" "The syntax here means that every implementation of `IntoIterator` must " "declare two types:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:65 msgid "`Item`: the type we iterate over, such as `i8`," msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:66 msgid "`IntoIter`: the `Iterator` type returned by the `into_iter` method." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:68 msgid "" "Note that `IntoIter` and `Item` are linked: the iterator must have the same " "`Item` type, which means that it returns `Option`" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:71 msgid "Like before, what is the type returned by the iterator?" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:73 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "fn main() {\n" " let v: Vec = vec![String::from(\"foo\"), String::" "from(\"bar\")];\n" " let mut iter = v.into_iter();\n" "\n" " let v0: Option<..> = iter.next();\n" " println!(\"v0: {v0:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:83 msgid "`for` Loops" msgstr "`for`\\-løkker" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:85 msgid "" "Now that we know both `Iterator` and `IntoIterator`, we can build `for` " "loops. They call `into_iter()` on an expression and iterates over the " "resulting iterator:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:89 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let v: Vec = vec![String::from(\"foo\"), String::" "from(\"bar\")];\n" "\n" " for word in &v {\n" " println!(\"word: {word}\");\n" " }\n" "\n" " for word in v {\n" " println!(\"word: {word}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:103 msgid "What is the type of `word` in each loop?" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/iterators-and-ownership.md:105 msgid "" "Experiment with the code above and then consult the documentation for [`impl " "IntoIterator for &Vec`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/vec/struct.Vec." "html#impl-IntoIterator-for-%26'a+Vec%3CT,+A%3E) and [`impl IntoIterator for " "Vec`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/vec/struct.Vec.html#impl-IntoIterator-" "for-Vec%3CT,+A%3E) to check your answers." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-2.md:1 msgid "Welcome to Day 2" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-2.md:3 msgid "Now that we have seen a fair amount of Rust, we will continue with:" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-2.md:5 msgid "Structs, enums, methods." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-2.md:7 msgid "Pattern matching: destructuring enums, structs, and arrays." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-2.md:9 msgid "" "Control flow constructs: `if`, `if let`, `while`, `while let`, `break`, and " "`continue`." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-2.md:12 msgid "" "The Standard Library: `String`, `Option` and `Result`, `Vec`, `HashMap`, " "`Rc` and `Arc`." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-2.md:15 msgid "Modules: visibility, paths, and filesystem hierarchy." msgstr "" #: src/structs.md:3 msgid "Like C and C++, Rust has support for custom structs:" msgstr "" #: src/structs.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "struct Person {\n" " name: String,\n" " age: u8,\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut peter = Person {\n" " name: String::from(\"Peter\"),\n" " age: 27,\n" " };\n" " println!(\"{} is {} years old\", peter.name, peter.age);\n" " \n" " peter.age = 28;\n" " println!(\"{} is {} years old\", peter.name, peter.age);\n" " \n" " let jackie = Person {\n" " name: String::from(\"Jackie\"),\n" " ..peter\n" " };\n" " println!(\"{} is {} years old\", jackie.name, jackie.age);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/structs.md:31 src/enums.md:34 src/enums/sizes.md:28 src/methods.md:30 #: src/methods/example.md:46 src/pattern-matching.md:25 #: src/pattern-matching/match-guards.md:22 src/control-flow/blocks.md:43 msgid "Key Points:" msgstr "" #: src/structs.md:33 msgid "Structs work like in C or C++." msgstr "" #: src/structs.md:34 msgid "Like in C++, and unlike in C, no typedef is needed to define a type." msgstr "" #: src/structs.md:35 msgid "Unlike in C++, there is no inheritance between structs." msgstr "" #: src/structs.md:36 msgid "" "Methods are defined in an `impl` block, which we will see in following " "slides." msgstr "" #: src/structs.md:37 msgid "" "This may be a good time to let people know there are different types of " "structs. " msgstr "" #: src/structs.md:38 msgid "" "Zero-sized structs `e.g., struct Foo;` might be used when implementing a " "trait on some type but don’t have any data that you want to store in the " "value itself. " msgstr "" #: src/structs.md:39 msgid "" "The next slide will introduce Tuple structs, used when the field names are " "not important." msgstr "" #: src/structs.md:40 msgid "" "The syntax `..peter` allows us to copy the majority of the fields from the " "old struct without having to explicitly type it all out. It must always be " "the last element." msgstr "" #: src/structs/tuple-structs.md:3 msgid "If the field names are unimportant, you can use a tuple struct:" msgstr "" #: src/structs/tuple-structs.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "struct Point(i32, i32);\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let p = Point(17, 23);\n" " println!(\"({}, {})\", p.0, p.1);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/structs/tuple-structs.md:14 msgid "This is often used for single-field wrappers (called newtypes):" msgstr "" #: src/structs/tuple-structs.md:16 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "struct PoundsOfForce(f64);\n" "struct Newtons(f64);\n" "\n" "fn compute_thruster_force() -> PoundsOfForce {\n" " todo!(\"Ask a rocket scientist at NASA\")\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn set_thruster_force(force: Newtons) {\n" " // ...\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let force = compute_thruster_force();\n" " set_thruster_force(force);\n" "}\n" "\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/structs/tuple-structs.md:37 msgid "" "Newtypes are a great way to encode additional information about the value in " "a primitive type, for example:" msgstr "" #: src/structs/tuple-structs.md:38 msgid "The number is measured in some units: `Newtons` in the example above." msgstr "" #: src/structs/tuple-structs.md:39 msgid "" "The value passed some validation when it was created, so you no longer have " "to validate it again at every use: 'PhoneNumber(String)`or`OddNumber(u32)\\`." msgstr "" #: src/structs/tuple-structs.md:40 msgid "" "Demonstrate how to add a `f64` value to a `Newtons` type by accessing the " "single field in the newtype." msgstr "" #: src/structs/tuple-structs.md:41 msgid "" "Rust generally doesn’t like inexplicit things, like automatic unwrapping or " "for instance using booleans as integers." msgstr "" #: src/structs/tuple-structs.md:42 msgid "Operator overloading is discussed on Day 3 (generics)." msgstr "" #: src/structs/tuple-structs.md:43 msgid "" "The example is a subtle reference to the [Mars Climate Orbiter](https://en." "wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Climate_Orbiter) failure." msgstr "" #: src/structs/field-shorthand.md:3 msgid "" "If you already have variables with the right names, then you can create the " "struct using a shorthand:" msgstr "" #: src/structs/field-shorthand.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Person {\n" " name: String,\n" " age: u8,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Person {\n" " fn new(name: String, age: u8) -> Person {\n" " Person { name, age }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let peter = Person::new(String::from(\"Peter\"), 27);\n" " println!(\"{peter:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/structs/field-shorthand.md:27 msgid "" "The `new` function could be written using `Self` as a type, as it is " "interchangeable with the struct type name" msgstr "" #: src/structs/field-shorthand.md:29 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Person {\n" " name: String,\n" " age: u8,\n" "}\n" "impl Person {\n" " fn new(name: String, age: u8) -> Self {\n" " Self { name, age }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/structs/field-shorthand.md:41 msgid "" "Implement the `Default` trait for the struct. Define some fields and use the " "default values for the other fields." msgstr "" #: src/structs/field-shorthand.md:43 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Person {\n" " name: String,\n" " age: u8,\n" "}\n" "impl Default for Person {\n" " fn default() -> Person {\n" " Person {\n" " name: \"Bot\".to_string(),\n" " age: 0,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "fn create_default() {\n" " let tmp = Person {\n" " ..Person::default()\n" " };\n" " let tmp = Person {\n" " name: \"Sam\".to_string(),\n" " ..Person::default()\n" " };\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/structs/field-shorthand.md:68 msgid "Methods are defined in the `impl` block." msgstr "" #: src/structs/field-shorthand.md:69 msgid "" "Use struct update syntax to define a new structure using `peter`. Note that " "the variable `peter` will no longer be accessible afterwards." msgstr "" #: src/structs/field-shorthand.md:70 msgid "" "Use `{:#?}` when printing structs to request the `Debug` representation." msgstr "" #: src/enums.md:3 msgid "" "The `enum` keyword allows the creation of a type which has a few different " "variants:" msgstr "" #: src/enums.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn generate_random_number() -> i32 {\n" " // Implementation based on https://xkcd.com/221/\n" " 4 // Chosen by fair dice roll. Guaranteed to be random.\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "enum CoinFlip {\n" " Heads,\n" " Tails,\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn flip_coin() -> CoinFlip {\n" " let random_number = generate_random_number();\n" " if random_number % 2 == 0 {\n" " return CoinFlip::Heads;\n" " } else {\n" " return CoinFlip::Tails;\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"You got: {:?}\", flip_coin());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/enums.md:36 msgid "Enumerations allow you to collect a set of values under one type" msgstr "" #: src/enums.md:37 msgid "" "This page offers an enum type `CoinFlip` with two variants `Heads` and " "`Tails`. You might note the namespace when using variants." msgstr "" #: src/enums.md:38 msgid "This might be a good time to compare Structs and Enums:" msgstr "" #: src/enums.md:39 msgid "" "In both, you can have a simple version without fields (unit struct) or one " "with different types of fields (variant payloads). " msgstr "" #: src/enums.md:40 msgid "In both, associated functions are defined within an `impl` block." msgstr "" #: src/enums.md:41 msgid "" "You could even implement the different variants of an enum with separate " "structs but then they wouldn’t be the same type as they would if they were " "all defined in an enum. " msgstr "" #: src/enums/variant-payloads.md:3 msgid "" "You can define richer enums where the variants carry data. You can then use " "the `match` statement to extract the data from each variant:" msgstr "" #: src/enums/variant-payloads.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "enum WebEvent {\n" " PageLoad, // Variant without payload\n" " KeyPress(char), // Tuple struct variant\n" " Click { x: i64, y: i64 }, // Full struct variant\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[rustfmt::skip]\n" "fn inspect(event: WebEvent) {\n" " match event {\n" " WebEvent::PageLoad => println!(\"page loaded\"),\n" " WebEvent::KeyPress(c) => println!(\"pressed '{c}'\"),\n" " WebEvent::Click { x, y } => println!(\"clicked at x={x}, y={y}\"),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let load = WebEvent::PageLoad;\n" " let press = WebEvent::KeyPress('x');\n" " let click = WebEvent::Click { x: 20, y: 80 };\n" "\n" " inspect(load);\n" " inspect(press);\n" " inspect(click);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/enums/variant-payloads.md:35 msgid "" "The values in the enum variants can only be accessed after being pattern " "matched. The pattern binds references to the fields in the \"match arm\" " "after the `=>`." msgstr "" #: src/enums/variant-payloads.md:36 msgid "" "The expression is matched against the patterns from top to bottom. There is " "no fall-through like in C or C++." msgstr "" #: src/enums/variant-payloads.md:37 msgid "" "The match expression has a value. The value is the last expression in the " "match arm which was executed." msgstr "" #: src/enums/variant-payloads.md:38 msgid "" "Starting from the top we look for what pattern matches the value then run " "the code following the arrow. Once we find a match, we stop. " msgstr "" #: src/enums/variant-payloads.md:39 msgid "" "Demonstrate what happens when the search is inexhaustive. Note the advantage " "the Rust compiler provides by confirming when all cases are handled. " msgstr "" #: src/enums/variant-payloads.md:40 msgid "`match` inspects a hidden discriminant field in the `enum`." msgstr "" #: src/enums/variant-payloads.md:41 msgid "" "It is possible to retrieve the discriminant by calling `std::mem::" "discriminant()`" msgstr "" #: src/enums/variant-payloads.md:42 msgid "" "This is useful, for example, if implementing `PartialEq` for structs where " "comparing field values doesn't affect equality." msgstr "" #: src/enums/variant-payloads.md:43 msgid "" "`WebEvent::Click { ... }` is not exactly the same as `WebEvent::" "Click(Click)` with a top level `struct Click { ... }`. The inlined version " "cannot implement traits, for example." msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:3 msgid "" "Rust enums are packed tightly, taking constraints due to alignment into " "account:" msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::any::type_name;\n" "use std::mem::{align_of, size_of};\n" "\n" "fn dbg_size() {\n" " println!(\"{}: size {} bytes, align: {} bytes\",\n" " type_name::(), size_of::(), align_of::());\n" "}\n" "\n" "enum Foo {\n" " A,\n" " B,\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " dbg_size::();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:24 msgid "" "See the [Rust Reference](https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/type-layout." "html)." msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:30 msgid "" "Internally Rust is using a field (discriminant) to keep track of the enum " "variant." msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:32 msgid "" "You can control the discriminant if needed (e.g., for compatibility with C):" msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:34 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[repr(u32)]\n" "enum Bar {\n" " A, // 0\n" " B = 10000,\n" " C, // 10001\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"A: {}\", Bar::A as u32);\n" " println!(\"B: {}\", Bar::B as u32);\n" " println!(\"C: {}\", Bar::C as u32);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:49 msgid "" "Without `repr`, the discriminant type takes 2 bytes, because 10001 fits 2 " "bytes." msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:53 msgid "Try out other types such as" msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:55 msgid "`dbg_size!(bool)`: size 1 bytes, align: 1 bytes," msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:56 msgid "" "`dbg_size!(Option)`: size 1 bytes, align: 1 bytes (niche optimization, " "see below)," msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:57 msgid "`dbg_size!(&i32)`: size 8 bytes, align: 8 bytes (on a 64-bit machine)," msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:58 msgid "" "`dbg_size!(Option<&i32>)`: size 8 bytes, align: 8 bytes (null pointer " "optimization, see below)." msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:60 msgid "" "Niche optimization: Rust will merge unused bit patterns for the enum " "discriminant." msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:63 msgid "" "Null pointer optimization: For [some types](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/" "option/#representation), Rust guarantees that `size_of::()` equals " "`size_of::>()`." msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:67 msgid "" "Example code if you want to show how the bitwise representation _may_ look " "like in practice. It's important to note that the compiler provides no " "guarantees regarding this representation, therefore this is totally unsafe." msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:70 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::mem::transmute;\n" "\n" "macro_rules! dbg_bits {\n" " ($e:expr, $bit_type:ty) => {\n" " println!(\"- {}: {:#x}\", stringify!($e), transmute::<_, " "$bit_type>($e));\n" " };\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " // TOTALLY UNSAFE. Rust provides no guarantees about the bitwise\n" " // representation of types.\n" " unsafe {\n" " println!(\"Bitwise representation of bool\");\n" " dbg_bits!(false, u8);\n" " dbg_bits!(true, u8);\n" "\n" " println!(\"Bitwise representation of Option\");\n" " dbg_bits!(None::, u8);\n" " dbg_bits!(Some(false), u8);\n" " dbg_bits!(Some(true), u8);\n" "\n" " println!(\"Bitwise representation of Option>\");\n" " dbg_bits!(Some(Some(false)), u8);\n" " dbg_bits!(Some(Some(true)), u8);\n" " dbg_bits!(Some(None::), u8);\n" " dbg_bits!(None::>, u8);\n" "\n" " println!(\"Bitwise representation of Option<&i32>\");\n" " dbg_bits!(None::<&i32>, usize);\n" " dbg_bits!(Some(&0i32), usize);\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:105 msgid "" "More complex example if you want to discuss what happens when we chain more " "than 256 `Option`s together." msgstr "" #: src/enums/sizes.md:107 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#![recursion_limit = \"1000\"]\n" "\n" "use std::mem::transmute;\n" "\n" "macro_rules! dbg_bits {\n" " ($e:expr, $bit_type:ty) => {\n" " println!(\"- {}: {:#x}\", stringify!($e), transmute::<_, " "$bit_type>($e));\n" " };\n" "}\n" "\n" "// Macro to wrap a value in 2^n Some() where n is the number of \"@\" " "signs.\n" "// Increasing the recursion limit is required to evaluate this macro.\n" "macro_rules! many_options {\n" " ($value:expr) => { Some($value) };\n" " ($value:expr, @) => {\n" " Some(Some($value))\n" " };\n" " ($value:expr, @ $($more:tt)+) => {\n" " many_options!(many_options!($value, $($more)+), $($more)+)\n" " };\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " // TOTALLY UNSAFE. Rust provides no guarantees about the bitwise\n" " // representation of types.\n" " unsafe {\n" " assert_eq!(many_options!(false), Some(false));\n" " assert_eq!(many_options!(false, @), Some(Some(false)));\n" " assert_eq!(many_options!(false, @@), " "Some(Some(Some(Some(false)))));\n" "\n" " println!(\"Bitwise representation of a chain of 128 Option's.\");\n" " dbg_bits!(many_options!(false, @@@@@@@), u8);\n" " dbg_bits!(many_options!(true, @@@@@@@), u8);\n" "\n" " println!(\"Bitwise representation of a chain of 256 Option's.\");\n" " dbg_bits!(many_options!(false, @@@@@@@@), u16);\n" " dbg_bits!(many_options!(true, @@@@@@@@), u16);\n" "\n" " println!(\"Bitwise representation of a chain of 257 Option's.\");\n" " dbg_bits!(many_options!(Some(false), @@@@@@@@), u16);\n" " dbg_bits!(many_options!(Some(true), @@@@@@@@), u16);\n" " dbg_bits!(many_options!(None::, @@@@@@@@), u16);\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/methods.md:3 msgid "" "Rust allows you to associate functions with your new types. You do this with " "an `impl` block:" msgstr "" #: src/methods.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Person {\n" " name: String,\n" " age: u8,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Person {\n" " fn say_hello(&self) {\n" " println!(\"Hello, my name is {}\", self.name);\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let peter = Person {\n" " name: String::from(\"Peter\"),\n" " age: 27,\n" " };\n" " peter.say_hello();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/methods.md:31 msgid "It can be helpful to introduce methods by comparing them to functions." msgstr "" #: src/methods.md:32 msgid "" "Methods are called on an instance of a type (such as a struct or enum), the " "first parameter represents the instance as `self`." msgstr "" #: src/methods.md:33 msgid "" "Developers may choose to use methods to take advantage of method receiver " "syntax and to help keep them more organized. By using methods we can keep " "all the implementation code in one predictable place." msgstr "" #: src/methods.md:34 msgid "Point out the use of the keyword `self`, a method receiver." msgstr "" #: src/methods.md:35 msgid "" "Show that it is an abbreviated term for `self: Self` and perhaps show how " "the struct name could also be used." msgstr "" #: src/methods.md:36 msgid "" "Explain that `Self` is a type alias for the type the `impl` block is in and " "can be used elsewhere in the block." msgstr "" #: src/methods.md:37 msgid "" "Note how `self` is used like other structs and dot notation can be used to " "refer to individual fields." msgstr "" #: src/methods.md:38 msgid "" "This might be a good time to demonstrate how the `&self` differs from `self` " "by modifying the code and trying to run say_hello twice." msgstr "" #: src/methods.md:39 msgid "We describe the distinction between method receivers next." msgstr "" #: src/methods/receiver.md:3 msgid "" "The `&self` above indicates that the method borrows the object immutably. " "There are other possible receivers for a method:" msgstr "" #: src/methods/receiver.md:6 msgid "" "`&self`: borrows the object from the caller using a shared and immutable " "reference. The object can be used again afterwards." msgstr "" #: src/methods/receiver.md:8 msgid "" "`&mut self`: borrows the object from the caller using a unique and mutable " "reference. The object can be used again afterwards." msgstr "" #: src/methods/receiver.md:10 msgid "" "`self`: takes ownership of the object and moves it away from the caller. The " "method becomes the owner of the object. The object will be dropped " "(deallocated) when the method returns, unless its ownership is explicitly " "transmitted. Complete ownership does not automatically mean mutability." msgstr "" #: src/methods/receiver.md:14 msgid "`mut self`: same as above, but the method can mutate the object. " msgstr "" #: src/methods/receiver.md:15 msgid "" "No receiver: this becomes a static method on the struct. Typically used to " "create constructors which are called `new` by convention." msgstr "" #: src/methods/receiver.md:18 msgid "" "Beyond variants on `self`, there are also [special wrapper types](https://" "doc.rust-lang.org/reference/special-types-and-traits.html) allowed to be " "receiver types, such as `Box`." msgstr "" #: src/methods/receiver.md:24 msgid "" "Consider emphasizing \"shared and immutable\" and \"unique and mutable\". " "These constraints always come together in Rust due to borrow checker rules, " "and `self` is no exception. It isn't possible to reference a struct from " "multiple locations and call a mutating (`&mut self`) method on it." msgstr "" #: src/methods/example.md:3 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Race {\n" " name: String,\n" " laps: Vec,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Race {\n" " fn new(name: &str) -> Race { // No receiver, a static method\n" " Race { name: String::from(name), laps: Vec::new() }\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn add_lap(&mut self, lap: i32) { // Exclusive borrowed read-write " "access to self\n" " self.laps.push(lap);\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn print_laps(&self) { // Shared and read-only borrowed access to self\n" " println!(\"Recorded {} laps for {}:\", self.laps.len(), self.name);\n" " for (idx, lap) in self.laps.iter().enumerate() {\n" " println!(\"Lap {idx}: {lap} sec\");\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn finish(self) { // Exclusive ownership of self\n" " let total = self.laps.iter().sum::();\n" " println!(\"Race {} is finished, total lap time: {}\", self.name, " "total);\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut race = Race::new(\"Monaco Grand Prix\");\n" " race.add_lap(70);\n" " race.add_lap(68);\n" " race.print_laps();\n" " race.add_lap(71);\n" " race.print_laps();\n" " race.finish();\n" " // race.add_lap(42);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/methods/example.md:47 msgid "All four methods here use a different method receiver." msgstr "" #: src/methods/example.md:48 msgid "" "You can point out how that changes what the function can do with the " "variable values and if/how it can be used again in `main`." msgstr "" #: src/methods/example.md:49 msgid "" "You can showcase the error that appears when trying to call `finish` twice." msgstr "" #: src/methods/example.md:50 msgid "" "Note that although the method receivers are different, the non-static " "functions are called the same way in the main body. Rust enables automatic " "referencing and dereferencing when calling methods. Rust automatically adds " "in the `&`, `*`, `muts` so that that object matches the method signature." msgstr "" #: src/methods/example.md:51 msgid "" "You might point out that `print_laps` is using a vector that is iterated " "over. We describe vectors in more detail in the afternoon. " msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching.md:3 msgid "" "The `match` keyword let you match a value against one or more _patterns_. " "The comparisons are done from top to bottom and the first match wins." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching.md:6 msgid "The patterns can be simple values, similarly to `switch` in C and C++:" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching.md:8 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let input = 'x';\n" "\n" " match input {\n" " 'q' => println!(\"Quitting\"),\n" " 'a' | 's' | 'w' | 'd' => println!(\"Moving around\"),\n" " '0'..='9' => println!(\"Number input\"),\n" " _ => println!(\"Something else\"),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching.md:21 msgid "The `_` pattern is a wildcard pattern which matches any value." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching.md:26 msgid "" "You might point out how some specific characters are being used when in a " "pattern" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching.md:27 msgid "`|` as an `or`" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching.md:28 msgid "`..` can expand as much as it needs to be" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching.md:29 msgid "`1..=5` represents an inclusive range" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching.md:30 msgid "`_` is a wild card" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching.md:31 msgid "" "It can be useful to show how binding works, by for instance replacing a " "wildcard character with a variable, or removing the quotes around `q`." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching.md:32 msgid "You can demonstrate matching on a reference." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching.md:33 msgid "" "This might be a good time to bring up the concept of irrefutable patterns, " "as the term can show up in error messages." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-enums.md:3 msgid "" "Patterns can also be used to bind variables to parts of your values. This is " "how you inspect the structure of your types. Let us start with a simple " "`enum` type:" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-enums.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "enum Result {\n" " Ok(i32),\n" " Err(String),\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn divide_in_two(n: i32) -> Result {\n" " if n % 2 == 0 {\n" " Result::Ok(n / 2)\n" " } else {\n" " Result::Err(format!(\"cannot divide {n} into two equal parts\"))\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let n = 100;\n" " match divide_in_two(n) {\n" " Result::Ok(half) => println!(\"{n} divided in two is {half}\"),\n" " Result::Err(msg) => println!(\"sorry, an error happened: {msg}\"),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-enums.md:29 msgid "" "Here we have used the arms to _destructure_ the `Result` value. In the first " "arm, `half` is bound to the value inside the `Ok` variant. In the second " "arm, `msg` is bound to the error message." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-enums.md:36 msgid "" "The `if`/`else` expression is returning an enum that is later unpacked with " "a `match`." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-enums.md:37 msgid "" "You can try adding a third variant to the enum definition and displaying the " "errors when running the code. Point out the places where your code is now " "inexhaustive and how the compiler tries to give you hints." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-structs.md:3 msgid "You can also destructure `structs`:" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-structs.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "struct Foo {\n" " x: (u32, u32),\n" " y: u32,\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[rustfmt::skip]\n" "fn main() {\n" " let foo = Foo { x: (1, 2), y: 3 };\n" " match foo {\n" " Foo { x: (1, b), y } => println!(\"x.0 = 1, b = {b}, y = {y}\"),\n" " Foo { y: 2, x: i } => println!(\"y = 2, x = {i:?}\"),\n" " Foo { y, .. } => println!(\"y = {y}, other fields were " "ignored\"),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-structs.md:23 msgid "Change the literal values in `foo` to match with the other patterns." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-structs.md:24 msgid "Add a new field to `Foo` and make changes to the pattern as needed." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-structs.md:25 msgid "" "The distinction between a capture and a constant expression can be hard to " "spot. Try changing the `2` in the second arm to a variable, and see that it " "subtly doesn't work. Change it to a `const` and see it working again." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-arrays.md:3 msgid "" "You can destructure arrays, tuples, and slices by matching on their elements:" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-arrays.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[rustfmt::skip]\n" "fn main() {\n" " let triple = [0, -2, 3];\n" " println!(\"Tell me about {triple:?}\");\n" " match triple {\n" " [0, y, z] => println!(\"First is 0, y = {y}, and z = {z}\"),\n" " [1, ..] => println!(\"First is 1 and the rest were ignored\"),\n" " _ => println!(\"All elements were ignored\"),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-arrays.md:21 msgid "" "Destructuring of slices of unknown length also works with patterns of fixed " "length." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-arrays.md:24 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " inspect(&[0, -2, 3]);\n" " inspect(&[0, -2, 3, 4]);\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[rustfmt::skip]\n" "fn inspect(slice: &[i32]) {\n" " println!(\"Tell me about {slice:?}\");\n" " match slice {\n" " &[0, y, z] => println!(\"First is 0, y = {y}, and z = {z}\"),\n" " &[1, ..] => println!(\"First is 1 and the rest were ignored\"),\n" " _ => println!(\"All elements were ignored\"),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-arrays.md:41 msgid "Create a new pattern using `_` to represent an element. " msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-arrays.md:42 msgid "Add more values to the array." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-arrays.md:43 msgid "" "Point out that how `..` will expand to account for different number of " "elements." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/destructuring-arrays.md:44 msgid "Show matching against the tail with patterns `[.., b]` and `[a@..,b]`" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/match-guards.md:3 msgid "" "When matching, you can add a _guard_ to a pattern. This is an arbitrary " "Boolean expression which will be executed if the pattern matches:" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/match-guards.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[rustfmt::skip]\n" "fn main() {\n" " let pair = (2, -2);\n" " println!(\"Tell me about {pair:?}\");\n" " match pair {\n" " (x, y) if x == y => println!(\"These are twins\"),\n" " (x, y) if x + y == 0 => println!(\"Antimatter, kaboom!\"),\n" " (x, _) if x % 2 == 1 => println!(\"The first one is odd\"),\n" " _ => println!(\"No correlation...\"),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/match-guards.md:23 msgid "" "Match guards as a separate syntax feature are important and necessary when " "we wish to concisely express more complex ideas than patterns alone would " "allow." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/match-guards.md:24 msgid "" "They are not the same as separate `if` expression inside of the match arm. " "An `if` expression inside of the branch block (after `=>`) happens after the " "match arm is selected. Failing the `if` condition inside of that block won't " "result in other arms of the original `match` expression being considered." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/match-guards.md:26 msgid "You can use the variables defined in the pattern in your if expression." msgstr "" #: src/pattern-matching/match-guards.md:27 msgid "" "The condition defined in the guard applies to every expression in a pattern " "with an `|`." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/morning.md:1 msgid "Day 2: Morning Exercises" msgstr "Dag 2: formiddagsøvelser" #: src/exercises/day-2/morning.md:3 msgid "We will look at implementing methods in two contexts:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/morning.md:5 msgid "Simple struct which tracks health statistics." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/morning.md:7 msgid "Multiple structs and enums for a drawing library." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/health-statistics.md:3 msgid "" "You're working on implementing a health-monitoring system. As part of that, " "you need to keep track of users' health statistics." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/health-statistics.md:6 msgid "" "You'll start with some stubbed functions in an `impl` block as well as a " "`User` struct definition. Your goal is to implement the stubbed out methods " "on the `User` `struct` defined in the `impl` block." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/health-statistics.md:10 msgid "" "Copy the code below to and fill in the missing " "methods:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/health-statistics.md:13 msgid "" "```rust,should_panic\n" "// TODO: remove this when you're done with your implementation.\n" "#![allow(unused_variables, dead_code)]\n" "\n" "pub struct User {\n" " name: String,\n" " age: u32,\n" " height: f32,\n" " visit_count: usize,\n" " last_blood_pressure: Option<(u32, u32)>,\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub struct Measurements {\n" " height: f32,\n" " blood_pressure: (u32, u32),\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub struct HealthReport<'a> {\n" " patient_name: &'a str,\n" " visit_count: u32,\n" " height_change: f32,\n" " blood_pressure_change: Option<(i32, i32)>,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl User {\n" " pub fn new(name: String, age: u32, height: f32) -> Self {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn name(&self) -> &str {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn age(&self) -> u32 {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn height(&self) -> f32 {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn doctor_visits(&self) -> u32 {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn set_age(&mut self, new_age: u32) {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn set_height(&mut self, new_height: f32) {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn visit_doctor(&mut self, measurements: Measurements) -> " "HealthReport {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let bob = User::new(String::from(\"Bob\"), 32, 155.2);\n" " println!(\"I'm {} and my age is {}\", bob.name(), bob.age());\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_height() {\n" " let bob = User::new(String::from(\"Bob\"), 32, 155.2);\n" " assert_eq!(bob.height(), 155.2);\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_set_age() {\n" " let mut bob = User::new(String::from(\"Bob\"), 32, 155.2);\n" " assert_eq!(bob.age(), 32);\n" " bob.set_age(33);\n" " assert_eq!(bob.age(), 33);\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_visit() {\n" " let mut bob = User::new(String::from(\"Bob\"), 32, 155.2);\n" " assert_eq!(bob.doctor_visits(), 0);\n" " let report = bob.visit_doctor(Measurements {\n" " height: 156.1,\n" " blood_pressure: (120, 80),\n" " });\n" " assert_eq!(report.patient_name, \"Bob\");\n" " assert_eq!(report.visit_count, 1);\n" " assert_eq!(report.blood_pressure_change, None);\n" "\n" " let report = bob.visit_doctor(Measurements {\n" " height: 156.1,\n" " blood_pressure: (115, 76),\n" " });\n" "\n" " assert_eq!(report.visit_count, 2);\n" " assert_eq!(report.blood_pressure_change, Some((-5, -4)));\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/points-polygons.md:1 msgid "Polygon Struct" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/points-polygons.md:3 msgid "" "We will create a `Polygon` struct which contain some points. Copy the code " "below to and fill in the missing methods to " "make the tests pass:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/points-polygons.md:7 msgid "" "```rust\n" "// TODO: remove this when you're done with your implementation.\n" "#![allow(unused_variables, dead_code)]\n" "\n" "pub struct Point {\n" " // add fields\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Point {\n" " // add methods\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub struct Polygon {\n" " // add fields\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Polygon {\n" " // add methods\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub struct Circle {\n" " // add fields\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Circle {\n" " // add methods\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub enum Shape {\n" " Polygon(Polygon),\n" " Circle(Circle),\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[cfg(test)]\n" "mod tests {\n" " use super::*;\n" "\n" " fn round_two_digits(x: f64) -> f64 {\n" " (x * 100.0).round() / 100.0\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_point_magnitude() {\n" " let p1 = Point::new(12, 13);\n" " assert_eq!(round_two_digits(p1.magnitude()), 17.69);\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_point_dist() {\n" " let p1 = Point::new(10, 10);\n" " let p2 = Point::new(14, 13);\n" " assert_eq!(round_two_digits(p1.dist(p2)), 5.00);\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_point_add() {\n" " let p1 = Point::new(16, 16);\n" " let p2 = p1 + Point::new(-4, 3);\n" " assert_eq!(p2, Point::new(12, 19));\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_polygon_left_most_point() {\n" " let p1 = Point::new(12, 13);\n" " let p2 = Point::new(16, 16);\n" "\n" " let mut poly = Polygon::new();\n" " poly.add_point(p1);\n" " poly.add_point(p2);\n" " assert_eq!(poly.left_most_point(), Some(p1));\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_polygon_iter() {\n" " let p1 = Point::new(12, 13);\n" " let p2 = Point::new(16, 16);\n" "\n" " let mut poly = Polygon::new();\n" " poly.add_point(p1);\n" " poly.add_point(p2);\n" "\n" " let points = poly.iter().cloned().collect::>();\n" " assert_eq!(points, vec![Point::new(12, 13), Point::new(16, 16)]);\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_shape_perimeters() {\n" " let mut poly = Polygon::new();\n" " poly.add_point(Point::new(12, 13));\n" " poly.add_point(Point::new(17, 11));\n" " poly.add_point(Point::new(16, 16));\n" " let shapes = vec![\n" " Shape::from(poly),\n" " Shape::from(Circle::new(Point::new(10, 20), 5)),\n" " ];\n" " let perimeters = shapes\n" " .iter()\n" " .map(Shape::perimeter)\n" " .map(round_two_digits)\n" " .collect::>();\n" " assert_eq!(perimeters, vec![15.48, 31.42]);\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[allow(dead_code)]\n" "fn main() {}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/points-polygons.md:117 msgid "" "Since the method signatures are missing from the problem statements, the key " "part of the exercise is to specify those correctly. You don't have to modify " "the tests." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/points-polygons.md:120 msgid "Other interesting parts of the exercise:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/points-polygons.md:122 msgid "" "Derive a `Copy` trait for some structs, as in tests the methods sometimes " "don't borrow their arguments." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/points-polygons.md:123 msgid "" "Discover that `Add` trait must be implemented for two objects to be addable " "via \"+\". Note that we do not discuss generics until Day 3." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow.md:3 msgid "" "As we have seen, `if` is an expression in Rust. It is used to conditionally " "evaluate one of two blocks, but the blocks can have a value which then " "becomes the value of the `if` expression. Other control flow expressions " "work similarly in Rust." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/blocks.md:3 msgid "" "A block in Rust contains a sequence of expressions. Each block has a value " "and a type, which are those of the last expression of the block:" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/blocks.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let x = {\n" " let y = 10;\n" " println!(\"y: {y}\");\n" " let z = {\n" " let w = {\n" " 3 + 4\n" " };\n" " println!(\"w: {w}\");\n" " y * w\n" " };\n" " println!(\"z: {z}\");\n" " z - y\n" " };\n" " println!(\"x: {x}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/blocks.md:26 msgid "" "If the last expression ends with `;`, then the resulting value and type is " "`()`." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/blocks.md:28 msgid "" "The same rule is used for functions: the value of the function body is the " "return value:" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/blocks.md:31 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn double(x: i32) -> i32 {\n" " x + x\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"doubled: {}\", double(7));\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/blocks.md:44 msgid "" "The point of this slide is to show that blocks have a type and value in " "Rust. " msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/blocks.md:45 msgid "" "You can show how the value of the block changes by changing the last line in " "the block. For instance, adding/removing a semicolon or using a `return`." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-expressions.md:1 msgid "`if` expressions" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-expressions.md:3 msgid "" "You use [`if` expressions](https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/expressions/" "if-expr.html#if-expressions) exactly like `if` statements in other languages:" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-expressions.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut x = 10;\n" " if x % 2 == 0 {\n" " x = x / 2;\n" " } else {\n" " x = 3 * x + 1;\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-expressions.md:18 msgid "" "In addition, you can use `if` as an expression. The last expression of each " "block becomes the value of the `if` expression:" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-expressions.md:22 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut x = 10;\n" " x = if x % 2 == 0 {\n" " x / 2\n" " } else {\n" " 3 * x + 1\n" " };\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-expressions.md:35 msgid "" "Because `if` is an expression and must have a particular type, both of its " "branch blocks must have the same type. Consider showing what happens if you " "add `;` after `x / 2` in the second example." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-let-expressions.md:1 msgid "`if let` expressions" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-let-expressions.md:3 msgid "" "The [`if let` expression](https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/expressions/if-" "expr.html#if-let-expressions) lets you execute different code depending on " "whether a value matches a pattern:" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-let-expressions.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let arg = std::env::args().next();\n" " if let Some(value) = arg {\n" " println!(\"Program name: {value}\");\n" " } else {\n" " println!(\"Missing name?\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-let-expressions.md:18 #: src/control-flow/while-let-expressions.md:21 #: src/control-flow/match-expressions.md:23 msgid "" "See [pattern matching](../pattern-matching.md) for more details on patterns " "in Rust." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-let-expressions.md:23 msgid "" "Unlike `match`, `if let` does not have to cover all branches. This can make " "it more concise than `match`." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-let-expressions.md:24 msgid "A common usage is handling `Some` values when working with `Option`." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-let-expressions.md:25 msgid "" "Unlike `match`, `if let` does not support guard clauses for pattern matching." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-let-expressions.md:26 msgid "" "Since 1.65, a similar [let-else](https://doc.rust-lang.org/rust-by-example/" "flow_control/let_else.html) construct allows to do a destructuring " "assignment, or if it fails, execute a block which is required to abort " "normal control flow (with `panic`/`return`/`break`/`continue`):" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/if-let-expressions.md:28 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"{:?}\", second_word_to_upper(\"foo bar\"));\n" "}\n" " \n" "fn second_word_to_upper(s: &str) -> Option {\n" " let mut it = s.split(' ');\n" " let (Some(_), Some(item)) = (it.next(), it.next()) else {\n" " return None;\n" " };\n" " Some(item.to_uppercase())\n" "}\n" "\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/while-expressions.md:1 msgid "`while` loops" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/while-expressions.md:3 msgid "" "The [`while` keyword](https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/expressions/loop-" "expr.html#predicate-loops) works very similar to other languages:" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/while-expressions.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut x = 10;\n" " while x != 1 {\n" " x = if x % 2 == 0 {\n" " x / 2\n" " } else {\n" " 3 * x + 1\n" " };\n" " }\n" " println!(\"Final x: {x}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/while-let-expressions.md:1 msgid "`while let` loops" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/while-let-expressions.md:3 msgid "" "Like with `if let`, there is a [`while let`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/" "reference/expressions/loop-expr.html#predicate-pattern-loops) variant which " "repeatedly tests a value against a pattern:" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/while-let-expressions.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let v = vec![10, 20, 30];\n" " let mut iter = v.into_iter();\n" "\n" " while let Some(x) = iter.next() {\n" " println!(\"x: {x}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/while-let-expressions.md:17 msgid "" "Here the iterator returned by `v.into_iter()` will return a `Option` on " "every call to `next()`. It returns `Some(x)` until it is done, after which " "it will return `None`. The `while let` lets us keep iterating through all " "items." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/while-let-expressions.md:26 msgid "" "Point out that the `while let` loop will keep going as long as the value " "matches the pattern." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/while-let-expressions.md:27 msgid "" "You could rewrite the `while let` loop as an infinite loop with an if " "statement that breaks when there is no value to unwrap for `iter.next()`. " "The `while let` provides syntactic sugar for the above scenario." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/for-expressions.md:1 msgid "`for` loops" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/for-expressions.md:3 msgid "" "The [`for` loop](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/keyword.for.html) is closely " "related to the [`while let` loop](while-let-expressions.md). It will " "automatically call `into_iter()` on the expression and then iterate over it:" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/for-expressions.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let v = vec![10, 20, 30];\n" "\n" " for x in v {\n" " println!(\"x: {x}\");\n" " }\n" " \n" " for i in (0..10).step_by(2) {\n" " println!(\"i: {i}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/for-expressions.md:21 msgid "You can use `break` and `continue` here as usual." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/for-expressions.md:25 msgid "Index iteration is not a special syntax in Rust for just that case." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/for-expressions.md:26 msgid "`(0..10)` is a range that implements an `Iterator` trait. " msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/for-expressions.md:27 msgid "" "`step_by` is a method that returns another `Iterator` that skips every other " "element. " msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/for-expressions.md:28 msgid "" "Modify the elements in the vector and explain the compiler errors. Change " "vector `v` to be mutable and the for loop to `for x in v.iter_mut()`." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/loop-expressions.md:1 msgid "`loop` expressions" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/loop-expressions.md:3 msgid "" "Finally, there is a [`loop` keyword](https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/" "expressions/loop-expr.html#infinite-loops) which creates an endless loop." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/loop-expressions.md:6 msgid "Here you must either `break` or `return` to stop the loop:" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/loop-expressions.md:8 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut x = 10;\n" " loop {\n" " x = if x % 2 == 0 {\n" " x / 2\n" " } else {\n" " 3 * x + 1\n" " };\n" " if x == 1 {\n" " break;\n" " }\n" " }\n" " println!(\"Final x: {x}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/loop-expressions.md:27 msgid "Break the `loop` with a value (e.g. `break 8`) and print it out." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/loop-expressions.md:28 msgid "" "Note that `loop` is the only looping construct which returns a non-trivial " "value. This is because it's guaranteed to be entered at least once (unlike " "`while` and `for` loops)." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/match-expressions.md:1 msgid "`match` expressions" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/match-expressions.md:3 msgid "" "The [`match` keyword](https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/expressions/match-" "expr.html) is used to match a value against one or more patterns. In that " "sense, it works like a series of `if let` expressions:" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/match-expressions.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " match std::env::args().next().as_deref() {\n" " Some(\"cat\") => println!(\"Will do cat things\"),\n" " Some(\"ls\") => println!(\"Will ls some files\"),\n" " Some(\"mv\") => println!(\"Let's move some files\"),\n" " Some(\"rm\") => println!(\"Uh, dangerous!\"),\n" " None => println!(\"Hmm, no program name?\"),\n" " _ => println!(\"Unknown program name!\"),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/match-expressions.md:20 msgid "" "Like `if let`, each match arm must have the same type. The type is the last " "expression of the block, if any. In the example above, the type is `()`." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/match-expressions.md:28 msgid "Save the match expression to a variable and print it out." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/match-expressions.md:29 msgid "Remove `.as_deref()` and explain the error." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/match-expressions.md:30 msgid "" "`std::env::args().next()` returns an `Option`, but we cannot match " "against `String`." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/match-expressions.md:31 msgid "" "`as_deref()` transforms an `Option` to `Option<&T::Target>`. In our case, " "this turns `Option` into `Option<&str>`." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/match-expressions.md:32 msgid "" "We can now use pattern matching to match against the `&str` inside `Option`." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/break-continue.md:1 msgid "`break` and `continue`" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/break-continue.md:3 msgid "" "If you want to exit a loop early, use [`break`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/" "reference/expressions/loop-expr.html#break-expressions)," msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/break-continue.md:4 msgid "" "If you want to immediately start the next iteration use [`continue`](https://" "doc.rust-lang.org/reference/expressions/loop-expr.html#continue-expressions)." msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/break-continue.md:7 msgid "" "Both `continue` and `break` can optionally take a label argument which is " "used to break out of nested loops:" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/break-continue.md:10 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let v = vec![10, 20, 30];\n" " let mut iter = v.into_iter();\n" " 'outer: while let Some(x) = iter.next() {\n" " println!(\"x: {x}\");\n" " let mut i = 0;\n" " while i < x {\n" " println!(\"x: {x}, i: {i}\");\n" " i += 1;\n" " if i == 3 {\n" " break 'outer;\n" " }\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/control-flow/break-continue.md:28 msgid "" "In this case we break the outer loop after 3 iterations of the inner loop." msgstr "" #: src/std.md:3 msgid "" "Rust comes with a standard library which helps establish a set of common " "types used by Rust library and programs. This way, two libraries can work " "together smoothly because they both use the same `String` type." msgstr "" #: src/std.md:7 msgid "The common vocabulary types include:" msgstr "" #: src/std.md:9 msgid "" "[`Option` and `Result`](std/option-result.md) types: used for optional " "values and [error handling](error-handling.md)." msgstr "" #: src/std.md:12 msgid "[`String`](std/string.md): the default string type used for owned data." msgstr "" #: src/std.md:14 msgid "[`Vec`](std/vec.md): a standard extensible vector." msgstr "" #: src/std.md:16 msgid "" "[`HashMap`](std/hashmap.md): a hash map type with a configurable hashing " "algorithm." msgstr "" #: src/std.md:19 msgid "[`Box`](std/box.md): an owned pointer for heap-allocated data." msgstr "" #: src/std.md:21 msgid "" "[`Rc`](std/rc.md): a shared reference-counted pointer for heap-allocated " "data." msgstr "" #: src/std.md:25 msgid "" "In fact, Rust contains several layers of the Standard Library: `core`, " "`alloc` and `std`. " msgstr "" #: src/std.md:26 msgid "" "`core` includes the most basic types and functions that don't depend on " "`libc`, allocator or even the presence of an operating system. " msgstr "" #: src/std.md:28 msgid "" "`alloc` includes types which require a global heap allocator, such as `Vec`, " "`Box` and `Arc`." msgstr "" #: src/std.md:29 msgid "" "Embedded Rust applications often only use `core`, and sometimes `alloc`." msgstr "" #: src/std/option-result.md:1 msgid "`Option` and `Result`" msgstr "" #: src/std/option-result.md:3 msgid "The types represent optional data:" msgstr "" #: src/std/option-result.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let numbers = vec![10, 20, 30];\n" " let first: Option<&i8> = numbers.first();\n" " println!(\"first: {first:?}\");\n" "\n" " let idx: Result = numbers.binary_search(&10);\n" " println!(\"idx: {idx:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/std/option-result.md:18 msgid "`Option` and `Result` are widely used not just in the standard library." msgstr "" #: src/std/option-result.md:19 msgid "`Option<&T>` has zero space overhead compared to `&T`." msgstr "" #: src/std/option-result.md:20 msgid "" "`Result` is the standard type to implement error handling as we will see on " "Day 3." msgstr "" #: src/std/option-result.md:21 msgid "`binary_search` returns `Result`." msgstr "" #: src/std/option-result.md:22 msgid "If found, `Result::Ok` holds the index where the element is found." msgstr "" #: src/std/option-result.md:23 msgid "" "Otherwise, `Result::Err` contains the index where such an element should be " "inserted." msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:3 msgid "" "[`String`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/string/struct.String.html) is the " "standard heap-allocated growable UTF-8 string buffer:" msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut s1 = String::new();\n" " s1.push_str(\"Hello\");\n" " println!(\"s1: len = {}, capacity = {}\", s1.len(), s1.capacity());\n" "\n" " let mut s2 = String::with_capacity(s1.len() + 1);\n" " s2.push_str(&s1);\n" " s2.push('!');\n" " println!(\"s2: len = {}, capacity = {}\", s2.len(), s2.capacity());\n" "\n" " let s3 = String::from(\"🇨🇭\");\n" " println!(\"s3: len = {}, number of chars = {}\", s3.len(),\n" " s3.chars().count());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:22 msgid "" "`String` implements [`Deref`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/" "string/struct.String.html#deref-methods-str), which means that you can call " "all `str` methods on a `String`." msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:30 msgid "" "`String::new` returns a new empty string, use `String::with_capacity` when " "you know how much data you want to push to the string." msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:31 msgid "" "`String::len` returns the size of the `String` in bytes (which can be " "different from its length in characters)." msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:32 msgid "" "`String::chars` returns an iterator over the actual characters. Note that a " "`char` can be different from what a human will consider a \"character\" due " "to [grapheme clusters](https://docs.rs/unicode-segmentation/latest/" "unicode_segmentation/struct.Graphemes.html)." msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:33 msgid "" "When people refer to strings they could either be talking about `&str` or " "`String`." msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:34 msgid "" "When a type implements `Deref`, the compiler will let you " "transparently call methods from `T`." msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:35 msgid "" "`String` implements `Deref` which transparently gives it " "access to `str`'s methods." msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:36 msgid "Write and compare `let s3 = s1.deref();` and `let s3 = &*s1`;." msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:37 msgid "" "`String` is implemented as a wrapper around a vector of bytes, many of the " "operations you see supported on vectors are also supported on `String`, but " "with some extra guarantees." msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:38 msgid "Compare the different ways to index a `String`:" msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:39 msgid "" "To a character by using `s3.chars().nth(i).unwrap()` where `i` is in-bound, " "out-of-bounds." msgstr "" #: src/std/string.md:40 msgid "" "To a substring by using `s3[0..4]`, where that slice is on character " "boundaries or not." msgstr "" #: src/std/vec.md:1 msgid "`Vec`" msgstr "" #: src/std/vec.md:3 msgid "" "[`Vec`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/vec/struct.Vec.html) is the standard " "resizable heap-allocated buffer:" msgstr "" #: src/std/vec.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut v1 = Vec::new();\n" " v1.push(42);\n" " println!(\"v1: len = {}, capacity = {}\", v1.len(), v1.capacity());\n" "\n" " let mut v2 = Vec::with_capacity(v1.len() + 1);\n" " v2.extend(v1.iter());\n" " v2.push(9999);\n" " println!(\"v2: len = {}, capacity = {}\", v2.len(), v2.capacity());\n" "\n" " // Canonical macro to initialize a vector with elements.\n" " let mut v3 = vec![0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4];\n" "\n" " // Retain only the even elements.\n" " v3.retain(|x| x % 2 == 0);\n" " println!(\"{v3:?}\");\n" "\n" " // Remove consecutive duplicates.\n" " v3.dedup();\n" " println!(\"{v3:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/std/vec.md:29 msgid "" "`Vec` implements [`Deref`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/vec/" "struct.Vec.html#deref-methods-%5BT%5D), which means that you can call slice " "methods on a `Vec`." msgstr "" #: src/std/vec.md:37 msgid "" "`Vec` is a type of collection, along with `String` and `HashMap`. The data " "it contains is stored on the heap. This means the amount of data doesn't " "need to be known at compile time. It can grow or shrink at runtime." msgstr "" #: src/std/vec.md:40 msgid "" "Notice how `Vec` is a generic type too, but you don't have to specify `T` " "explicitly. As always with Rust type inference, the `T` was established " "during the first `push` call." msgstr "" #: src/std/vec.md:42 msgid "" "`vec![...]` is a canonical macro to use instead of `Vec::new()` and it " "supports adding initial elements to the vector." msgstr "" #: src/std/vec.md:44 msgid "" "To index the vector you use `[` `]`, but they will panic if out of bounds. " "Alternatively, using `get` will return an `Option`. The `pop` function will " "remove the last element." msgstr "" #: src/std/vec.md:46 msgid "" "Show iterating over a vector and mutating the value: `for e in &mut v { *e " "+= 50; }`" msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:1 src/bare-metal/no_std.md:46 msgid "`HashMap`" msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:3 msgid "Standard hash map with protection against HashDoS attacks:" msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::collections::HashMap;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut page_counts = HashMap::new();\n" " page_counts.insert(\"Adventures of Huckleberry Finn\".to_string(), " "207);\n" " page_counts.insert(\"Grimms' Fairy Tales\".to_string(), 751);\n" " page_counts.insert(\"Pride and Prejudice\".to_string(), 303);\n" "\n" " if !page_counts.contains_key(\"Les Misérables\") {\n" " println!(\"We know about {} books, but not Les Misérables.\",\n" " page_counts.len());\n" " }\n" "\n" " for book in [\"Pride and Prejudice\", \"Alice's Adventure in " "Wonderland\"] {\n" " match page_counts.get(book) {\n" " Some(count) => println!(\"{book}: {count} pages\"),\n" " None => println!(\"{book} is unknown.\")\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " // Use the .entry() method to insert a value if nothing is found.\n" " for book in [\"Pride and Prejudice\", \"Alice's Adventure in " "Wonderland\"] {\n" " let page_count: &mut i32 = page_counts.entry(book.to_string())." "or_insert(0);\n" " *page_count += 1;\n" " }\n" "\n" " println!(\"{page_counts:#?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:38 msgid "" "`HashMap` is not defined in the prelude and needs to be brought into scope." msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:39 msgid "" "Try the following lines of code. The first line will see if a book is in the " "hashmap and if not return an alternative value. The second line will insert " "the alternative value in the hashmap if the book is not found." msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:41 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" " let pc1 = page_counts\n" " .get(\"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone \")\n" " .unwrap_or(&336);\n" " let pc2 = page_counts\n" " .entry(\"The Hunger Games\".to_string())\n" " .or_insert(374);\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:49 msgid "Unlike `vec!`, there is unfortunately no standard `hashmap!` macro." msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:50 msgid "" "Although, since Rust 1.56, HashMap implements [`From<[(K, V); N]>`](https://" "doc.rust-lang.org/std/collections/hash_map/struct.HashMap.html#impl-" "From%3C%5B(K,+V);+N%5D%3E-for-HashMap%3CK,+V,+RandomState%3E), which allows " "us to easily initialize a hash map from a literal array:" msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:52 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" " let page_counts = HashMap::from([\n" " (\"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone\".to_string(), 336),\n" " (\"The Hunger Games\".to_string(), 374),\n" " ]);\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:59 msgid "" "Alternatively HashMap can be built from any `Iterator` which yields key-" "value tuples." msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:60 msgid "" "We are showing `HashMap`, and avoid using `&str` as key to make " "examples easier. Using references in collections can, of course, be done, " "but it can lead into complications with the borrow checker." msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:62 msgid "" "Try removing `to_string()` from the example above and see if it still " "compiles. Where do you think we might run into issues?" msgstr "" #: src/std/hashmap.md:64 msgid "" "This type has several \"method-specific\" return types, such as `std::" "collections::hash_map::Keys`. These types often appear in searches of the " "Rust docs. Show students the docs for this type, and the helpful link back " "to the `keys` method." msgstr "" #: src/std/box.md:1 msgid "`Box`" msgstr "" #: src/std/box.md:3 msgid "" "[`Box`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/boxed/struct.Box.html) is an owned " "pointer to data on the heap:" msgstr "" #: src/std/box.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let five = Box::new(5);\n" " println!(\"five: {}\", *five);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/std/box.md:13 msgid "" "```bob\n" " Stack Heap\n" ".- - - - - - -. .- - - - - - -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": five : : :\n" ": +-----+ : : +-----+ :\n" ": | o---|---+-----+-->| 5 | :\n" ": +-----+ : : +-----+ :\n" ": : : :\n" ": : : :\n" "`- - - - - - -' `- - - - - - -'\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/std/box.md:26 msgid "" "`Box` implements `Deref`, which means that you can [call " "methods from `T` directly on a `Box`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/ops/" "trait.Deref.html#more-on-deref-coercion)." msgstr "" #: src/std/box.md:34 msgid "" "`Box` is like `std::unique_ptr` in C++, except that it's guaranteed to be " "not null. " msgstr "" #: src/std/box.md:35 msgid "" "In the above example, you can even leave out the `*` in the `println!` " "statement thanks to `Deref`. " msgstr "" #: src/std/box.md:36 msgid "A `Box` can be useful when you:" msgstr "" #: src/std/box.md:37 msgid "" "have a type whose size that can't be known at compile time, but the Rust " "compiler wants to know an exact size." msgstr "" #: src/std/box.md:38 msgid "" "want to transfer ownership of a large amount of data. To avoid copying large " "amounts of data on the stack, instead store the data on the heap in a `Box` " "so only the pointer is moved." msgstr "" #: src/std/box-recursive.md:1 msgid "Box with Recursive Data Structures" msgstr "" #: src/std/box-recursive.md:3 msgid "" "Recursive data types or data types with dynamic sizes need to use a `Box`:" msgstr "" #: src/std/box-recursive.md:5 src/std/box-niche.md:3 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "enum List {\n" " Cons(T, Box>),\n" " Nil,\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let list: List = List::Cons(1, Box::new(List::Cons(2, Box::" "new(List::Nil))));\n" " println!(\"{list:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/std/box-recursive.md:18 msgid "" "```bob\n" " Stack Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " "- -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": " "list : : :\n" ": +------+----+----+ : : +------+----+----+ +------+----+----" "+ :\n" ": | Cons | 1 | o--+----+-----+--->| Cons | 2 | o--+--->| Nil | // | // " "| :\n" ": +------+----+----+ : : +------+----+----+ +------+----+----" "+ :\n" ": : : :\n" ": : : :\n" "'- - - - - - - - - - - - -' '- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " "- -'\n" "```" msgstr "" "```bob\n" " Stak Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " "- -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": " "list : : :\n" ": +------+----+----+ : : +------+----+----+ +------+----+----" "+ :\n" ": | Cons | 1 | o--+----+-----+--->| Cons | 2 | o--+--->| Nil | // | // " "| :\n" ": +------+----+----+ : : +------+----+----+ +------+----+----" "+ :\n" ": : : :\n" ": : : :\n" "'- - - - - - - - - - - - -' '- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " "- -'\n" "```" #: src/std/box-recursive.md:33 msgid "" "If `Box` was not used and we attempted to embed a `List` directly into the " "`List`, the compiler would not compute a fixed size of the struct in memory " "(`List` would be of infinite size)." msgstr "" #: src/std/box-recursive.md:36 msgid "" "`Box` solves this problem as it has the same size as a regular pointer and " "just points at the next element of the `List` in the heap." msgstr "" #: src/std/box-recursive.md:39 msgid "" "Remove the `Box` in the List definition and show the compiler error. " "\"Recursive with indirection\" is a hint you might want to use a Box or " "reference of some kind, instead of storing a value directly." msgstr "" #: src/std/box-niche.md:16 msgid "" "A `Box` cannot be empty, so the pointer is always valid and non-`null`. This " "allows the compiler to optimize the memory layout:" msgstr "" #: src/std/box-niche.md:19 msgid "" "```bob\n" " Stack Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " "-.\n" ": : : :\n" ": " "list : : :\n" ": +----+----+ : : +----+----+ +----+------" "+ :\n" ": | 1 | o--+-----------+-----+--->| 2 | o--+--->| // | null " "| :\n" ": +----+----+ : : +----+----+ +----+------" "+ :\n" ": : : :\n" ": : : :\n" "`- - - - - - - - - - - - -' '- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " "-'\n" "```" msgstr "" "```bob\n" " Stak Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " "-.\n" ": : : :\n" ": " "list : : :\n" ": +----+----+ : : +----+----+ +----+------" "+ :\n" ": | 1 | o--+-----------+-----+--->| 2 | o--+--->| // | null " "| :\n" ": +----+----+ : : +----+----+ +----+------" "+ :\n" ": : : :\n" ": : : :\n" "`- - - - - - - - - - - - -' '- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " "-'\n" "```" #: src/std/rc.md:1 msgid "`Rc`" msgstr "" #: src/std/rc.md:3 msgid "" "[`Rc`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/rc/struct.Rc.html) is a reference-" "counted shared pointer. Use this when you need to refer to the same data " "from multiple places:" msgstr "" #: src/std/rc.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::rc::Rc;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut a = Rc::new(10);\n" " let mut b = Rc::clone(&a);\n" "\n" " println!(\"a: {a}\");\n" " println!(\"b: {b}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/std/rc.md:18 msgid "" "See [`Arc`](../concurrency/shared_state/arc.md) and [`Mutex`](https://doc." "rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.Mutex.html) if you are in a multi-threaded " "context." msgstr "" #: src/std/rc.md:19 msgid "" "You can _downgrade_ a shared pointer into a [`Weak`](https://doc.rust-lang." "org/std/rc/struct.Weak.html) pointer to create cycles that will get dropped." msgstr "" #: src/std/rc.md:29 msgid "" "`Rc`'s count ensures that its contained value is valid for as long as there " "are references." msgstr "" #: src/std/rc.md:30 msgid "`Rc` in Rust is like `std::shared_ptr` in C++." msgstr "" #: src/std/rc.md:31 msgid "" "`Rc::clone` is cheap: it creates a pointer to the same allocation and " "increases the reference count. Does not make a deep clone and can generally " "be ignored when looking for performance issues in code." msgstr "" #: src/std/rc.md:32 msgid "" "`make_mut` actually clones the inner value if necessary (\"clone-on-write\") " "and returns a mutable reference." msgstr "" #: src/std/rc.md:33 msgid "Use `Rc::strong_count` to check the reference count." msgstr "" #: src/std/rc.md:34 msgid "" "`Rc::downgrade` gives you a _weakly reference-counted_ object to create " "cycles that will be dropped properly (likely in combination with `RefCell`, " "on the next slide)." msgstr "" #: src/std/cell.md:1 msgid "`Cell` and `RefCell`" msgstr "" #: src/std/cell.md:3 msgid "" "[`Cell`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/cell/struct.Cell.html) and [`RefCell`]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/cell/struct.RefCell.html) implement what Rust " "calls _interior mutability:_ mutation of values in an immutable context." msgstr "" #: src/std/cell.md:8 msgid "" "`Cell` is typically used for simple types, as it requires copying or moving " "values. More complex interior types typically use `RefCell`, which tracks " "shared and exclusive references at runtime and panics if they are misused." msgstr "" #: src/std/cell.md:12 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::cell::RefCell;\n" "use std::rc::Rc;\n" "\n" "#[derive(Debug, Default)]\n" "struct Node {\n" " value: i64,\n" " children: Vec>>,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Node {\n" " fn new(value: i64) -> Rc> {\n" " Rc::new(RefCell::new(Node { value, ..Node::default() }))\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn sum(&self) -> i64 {\n" " self.value + self.children.iter().map(|c| c.borrow().sum()).sum::" "()\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let root = Node::new(1);\n" " root.borrow_mut().children.push(Node::new(5));\n" " let subtree = Node::new(10);\n" " subtree.borrow_mut().children.push(Node::new(11));\n" " subtree.borrow_mut().children.push(Node::new(12));\n" " root.borrow_mut().children.push(subtree);\n" "\n" " println!(\"graph: {root:#?}\");\n" " println!(\"graph sum: {}\", root.borrow().sum());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/std/cell.md:47 msgid "" "If we were using `Cell` instead of `RefCell` in this example, we would have " "to move the `Node` out of the `Rc` to push children, then move it back in. " "This is safe because there's always one, un-referenced value in the cell, " "but it's not ergonomic." msgstr "" #: src/std/cell.md:48 msgid "" "To do anything with a Node, you must call a `RefCell` method, usually " "`borrow` or `borrow_mut`." msgstr "" #: src/std/cell.md:49 msgid "" "Demonstrate that reference loops can be created by adding `root` to `subtree." "children` (don't try to print it!)." msgstr "" #: src/std/cell.md:50 msgid "" "To demonstrate a runtime panic, add a `fn inc(&mut self)` that increments " "`self.value` and calls the same method on its children. This will panic in " "the presence of the reference loop, with `thread 'main' panicked at 'already " "borrowed: BorrowMutError'`." msgstr "" #: src/modules.md:3 msgid "We have seen how `impl` blocks let us namespace functions to a type." msgstr "" #: src/modules.md:5 msgid "Similarly, `mod` lets us namespace types and functions:" msgstr "" #: src/modules.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "mod foo {\n" " pub fn do_something() {\n" " println!(\"In the foo module\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "mod bar {\n" " pub fn do_something() {\n" " println!(\"In the bar module\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " foo::do_something();\n" " bar::do_something();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/modules.md:28 msgid "" "Packages provide functionality and include a `Cargo.toml` file that " "describes how to build a bundle of 1+ crates." msgstr "" #: src/modules.md:29 msgid "" "Crates are a tree of modules, where a binary crate creates an executable and " "a library crate compiles to a library." msgstr "" #: src/modules.md:30 msgid "Modules define organization, scope, and are the focus of this section." msgstr "" #: src/modules/visibility.md:3 msgid "Modules are a privacy boundary:" msgstr "" #: src/modules/visibility.md:5 msgid "Module items are private by default (hides implementation details)." msgstr "" #: src/modules/visibility.md:6 msgid "Parent and sibling items are always visible." msgstr "" #: src/modules/visibility.md:7 msgid "" "In other words, if an item is visible in module `foo`, it's visible in all " "the descendants of `foo`." msgstr "" #: src/modules/visibility.md:10 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "mod outer {\n" " fn private() {\n" " println!(\"outer::private\");\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn public() {\n" " println!(\"outer::public\");\n" " }\n" "\n" " mod inner {\n" " fn private() {\n" " println!(\"outer::inner::private\");\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn public() {\n" " println!(\"outer::inner::public\");\n" " super::private();\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " outer::public();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/modules/visibility.md:39 msgid "Use the `pub` keyword to make modules public." msgstr "" #: src/modules/visibility.md:41 msgid "" "Additionally, there are advanced `pub(...)` specifiers to restrict the scope " "of public visibility." msgstr "" #: src/modules/visibility.md:43 msgid "" "See the [Rust Reference](https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/visibility-and-" "privacy.html#pubin-path-pubcrate-pubsuper-and-pubself)." msgstr "" #: src/modules/visibility.md:44 msgid "Configuring `pub(crate)` visibility is a common pattern." msgstr "" #: src/modules/visibility.md:45 msgid "Less commonly, you can give visibility to a specific path." msgstr "" #: src/modules/visibility.md:46 msgid "" "In any case, visibility must be granted to an ancestor module (and all of " "its descendants)." msgstr "" #: src/modules/paths.md:3 msgid "Paths are resolved as follows:" msgstr "" #: src/modules/paths.md:5 msgid "As a relative path:" msgstr "" #: src/modules/paths.md:6 msgid "`foo` or `self::foo` refers to `foo` in the current module," msgstr "" #: src/modules/paths.md:7 msgid "`super::foo` refers to `foo` in the parent module." msgstr "" #: src/modules/paths.md:9 msgid "As an absolute path:" msgstr "" #: src/modules/paths.md:10 msgid "`crate::foo` refers to `foo` in the root of the current crate," msgstr "" #: src/modules/paths.md:11 msgid "`bar::foo` refers to `foo` in the `bar` crate." msgstr "" #: src/modules/paths.md:13 msgid "" "A module can bring symbols from another module into scope with `use`. You " "will typically see something like this at the top of each module:" msgstr "" #: src/modules/paths.md:16 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::collections::HashSet;\n" "use std::mem::transmute;\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:3 msgid "" "Omitting the module content will tell Rust to look for it in another file:" msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "mod garden;\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:9 msgid "" "This tells rust that the `garden` module content is found at `src/garden." "rs`. Similarly, a `garden::vegetables` module can be found at `src/garden/" "vegetables.rs`." msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:12 msgid "The `crate` root is in:" msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:14 msgid "`src/lib.rs` (for a library crate)" msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:15 msgid "`src/main.rs` (for a binary crate)" msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:17 msgid "" "Modules defined in files can be documented, too, using \"inner doc " "comments\". These document the item that contains them -- in this case, a " "module." msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:20 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "//! This module implements the garden, including a highly performant " "germination\n" "//! implementation.\n" "\n" "// Re-export types from this module.\n" "pub use seeds::SeedPacket;\n" "pub use garden::Garden;\n" "\n" "/// Sow the given seed packets.\n" "pub fn sow(seeds: Vec) { todo!() }\n" "\n" "/// Harvest the produce in the garden that is ready.\n" "pub fn harvest(garden: &mut Garden) { todo!() }\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:37 msgid "" "Before Rust 2018, modules needed to be located at `module/mod.rs` instead of " "`module.rs`, and this is still a working alternative for editions after 2018." msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:39 msgid "" "The main reason to introduce `filename.rs` as alternative to `filename/mod." "rs` was because many files named `mod.rs` can be hard to distinguish in IDEs." msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:42 msgid "Deeper nesting can use folders, even if the main module is a file:" msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:44 msgid "" "```ignore\n" "src/\n" "├── main.rs\n" "├── top_module.rs\n" "└── top_module/\n" " └── sub_module.rs\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:52 msgid "" "The place rust will look for modules can be changed with a compiler " "directive:" msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:54 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "#[path = \"some/path.rs\"]\n" "mod some_module;\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/modules/filesystem.md:59 msgid "" "This is useful, for example, if you would like to place tests for a module " "in a file named `some_module_test.rs`, similar to the convention in Go." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/afternoon.md:1 msgid "Day 2: Afternoon Exercises" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/afternoon.md:3 msgid "The exercises for this afternoon will focus on strings and iterators." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/luhn.md:3 msgid "" "The [Luhn algorithm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luhn_algorithm) is used " "to validate credit card numbers. The algorithm takes a string as input and " "does the following to validate the credit card number:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/luhn.md:7 msgid "Ignore all spaces. Reject number with less than two digits." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/luhn.md:9 msgid "" "Moving from **right to left**, double every second digit: for the number " "`1234`, we double `3` and `1`. For the number `98765`, we double `6` and `8`." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/luhn.md:12 msgid "" "After doubling a digit, sum the digits. So doubling `7` becomes `14` which " "becomes `5`." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/luhn.md:15 msgid "Sum all the undoubled and doubled digits." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/luhn.md:17 msgid "The credit card number is valid if the sum ends with `0`." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/luhn.md:19 msgid "" "Copy the code below to and implement the " "function." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/luhn.md:21 msgid "" "Try to solve the problem the \"simple\" way first, using `for` loops and " "integers. Then, revisit the solution and try to implement it with iterators." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/luhn.md:25 msgid "" "```rust\n" "// TODO: remove this when you're done with your implementation.\n" "#![allow(unused_variables, dead_code)]\n" "\n" "pub fn luhn(cc_number: &str) -> bool {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_non_digit_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"foo\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_empty_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"\"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\" \"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\" \"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\" \"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_single_digit_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"0\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_two_digit_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(luhn(\" 0 0 \"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_valid_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(luhn(\"4263 9826 4026 9299\"));\n" " assert!(luhn(\"4539 3195 0343 6467\"));\n" " assert!(luhn(\"7992 7398 713\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_invalid_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"4223 9826 4026 9299\"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"4539 3195 0343 6476\"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"8273 1232 7352 0569\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[allow(dead_code)]\n" "fn main() {}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/strings-iterators.md:3 msgid "" "In this exercise, you are implementing a routing component of a web server. " "The server is configured with a number of _path prefixes_ which are matched " "against _request paths_. The path prefixes can contain a wildcard character " "which matches a full segment. See the unit tests below." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/strings-iterators.md:8 msgid "" "Copy the following code to and make the tests " "pass. Try avoiding allocating a `Vec` for your intermediate results:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/strings-iterators.md:12 msgid "" "```rust\n" "// TODO: remove this when you're done with your implementation.\n" "#![allow(unused_variables, dead_code)]\n" "\n" "pub fn prefix_matches(prefix: &str, request_path: &str) -> bool {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_matches_without_wildcard() {\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/publishers\"));\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/publishers/" "abc-123\"));\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/publishers/abc/" "books\"));\n" "\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1\"));\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/publishersBooks\"));\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/parent/" "publishers\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_matches_with_wildcard() {\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\n" " \"/v1/publishers/*/books\",\n" " \"/v1/publishers/foo/books\"\n" " ));\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\n" " \"/v1/publishers/*/books\",\n" " \"/v1/publishers/bar/books\"\n" " ));\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\n" " \"/v1/publishers/*/books\",\n" " \"/v1/publishers/foo/books/book1\"\n" " ));\n" "\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers/*/books\", \"/v1/" "publishers\"));\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\n" " \"/v1/publishers/*/books\",\n" " \"/v1/publishers/foo/booksByAuthor\"\n" " ));\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-3.md:1 msgid "Welcome to Day 3" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-3.md:3 msgid "Today, we will cover some more advanced topics of Rust:" msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-3.md:5 msgid "" "Traits: deriving traits, default methods, and important standard library " "traits." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-3.md:8 msgid "" "Generics: generic data types, generic methods, monomorphization, and trait " "objects." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-3.md:11 msgid "Error handling: panics, `Result`, and the try operator `?`." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-3.md:13 msgid "Testing: unit tests, documentation tests, and integration tests." msgstr "" #: src/welcome-day-3.md:15 msgid "" "Unsafe Rust: raw pointers, static variables, unsafe functions, and extern " "functions." msgstr "" #: src/generics.md:3 msgid "" "Rust support generics, which lets you abstract algorithms or data structures " "(such as sorting or a binary tree) over the types used or stored." msgstr "" #: src/generics/data-types.md:3 msgid "You can use generics to abstract over the concrete field type:" msgstr "" #: src/generics/data-types.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Point {\n" " x: T,\n" " y: T,\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let integer = Point { x: 5, y: 10 };\n" " let float = Point { x: 1.0, y: 4.0 };\n" " println!(\"{integer:?} and {float:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/generics/data-types.md:21 msgid "Try declaring a new variable `let p = Point { x: 5, y: 10.0 };`." msgstr "" #: src/generics/data-types.md:23 msgid "Fix the code to allow points that have elements of different types." msgstr "" #: src/generics/methods.md:3 msgid "You can declare a generic type on your `impl` block:" msgstr "" #: src/generics/methods.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Point(T, T);\n" "\n" "impl Point {\n" " fn x(&self) -> &T {\n" " &self.0 // + 10\n" " }\n" "\n" " // fn set_x(&mut self, x: T)\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let p = Point(5, 10);\n" " println!(\"p.x = {}\", p.x());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/generics/methods.md:25 msgid "" "_Q:_ Why `T` is specified twice in `impl Point {}`? Isn't that " "redundant?" msgstr "" #: src/generics/methods.md:26 msgid "" "This is because it is a generic implementation section for generic type. " "They are independently generic." msgstr "" #: src/generics/methods.md:27 msgid "It means these methods are defined for any `T`." msgstr "" #: src/generics/methods.md:28 msgid "It is possible to write `impl Point { .. }`. " msgstr "" #: src/generics/methods.md:29 msgid "" "`Point` is still generic and you can use `Point`, but methods in this " "block will only be available for `Point`." msgstr "" #: src/generics/monomorphization.md:3 msgid "Generic code is turned into non-generic code based on the call sites:" msgstr "" #: src/generics/monomorphization.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let integer = Some(5);\n" " let float = Some(5.0);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/generics/monomorphization.md:12 msgid "behaves as if you wrote" msgstr "" #: src/generics/monomorphization.md:14 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "enum Option_i32 {\n" " Some(i32),\n" " None,\n" "}\n" "\n" "enum Option_f64 {\n" " Some(f64),\n" " None,\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let integer = Option_i32::Some(5);\n" " let float = Option_f64::Some(5.0);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/generics/monomorphization.md:31 msgid "" "This is a zero-cost abstraction: you get exactly the same result as if you " "had hand-coded the data structures without the abstraction." msgstr "" #: src/traits.md:3 msgid "" "Rust lets you abstract over types with traits. They're similar to interfaces:" msgstr "" #: src/traits.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "trait Pet {\n" " fn name(&self) -> String;\n" "}\n" "\n" "struct Dog {\n" " name: String,\n" "}\n" "\n" "struct Cat;\n" "\n" "impl Pet for Dog {\n" " fn name(&self) -> String {\n" " self.name.clone()\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Pet for Cat {\n" " fn name(&self) -> String {\n" " String::from(\"The cat\") // No name, cats won't respond to it " "anyway.\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn greet(pet: &P) {\n" " println!(\"Who's a cutie? {} is!\", pet.name());\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let fido = Dog { name: \"Fido\".into() };\n" " greet(&fido);\n" "\n" " let captain_floof = Cat;\n" " greet(&captain_floof);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-objects.md:3 msgid "" "Trait objects allow for values of different types, for instance in a " "collection:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-objects.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "trait Pet {\n" " fn name(&self) -> String;\n" "}\n" "\n" "struct Dog {\n" " name: String,\n" "}\n" "\n" "struct Cat;\n" "\n" "impl Pet for Dog {\n" " fn name(&self) -> String {\n" " self.name.clone()\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Pet for Cat {\n" " fn name(&self) -> String {\n" " String::from(\"The cat\") // No name, cats won't respond to it " "anyway.\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let pets: Vec> = vec![\n" " Box::new(Cat),\n" " Box::new(Dog { name: String::from(\"Fido\") }),\n" " ];\n" " for pet in pets {\n" " println!(\"Hello {}!\", pet.name());\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-objects.md:40 msgid "Memory layout after allocating `pets`:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-objects.md:42 msgid "" "```bob\n" " Stack Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " "- -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": " "pets : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : +-----+-----" "+ :\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+-----+-->| o o | o o " "| :\n" ": | len | 2 | : : +-|-|-+-|-|-" "+ :\n" ": | capacity | 2 | : : | | | | +---------------" "+ :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : | | | '-->| name: \"Fido\" " "| :\n" ": : : | | | +---------------" "+ :\n" "`- - - - - - - - - - - - - -' : | | " "| :\n" " : | | | +----------------------" "+ : \n" " : | | '---->| \"::name\" " "| :\n" " : | | +----------------------" "+ : \n" " : | " "| : \n" " : | | +-" "+ : \n" " : | '-->|" "\\| : \n" " : | +-" "+ : \n" " : " "| : \n" " : | +----------------------" "+ : \n" " : '---->| \"::name\" " "| : \n" " : +----------------------" "+ :\n" " : :\n" " '- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " "- -'\n" "\n" "```" msgstr "" "```bob\n" " Stak Heap\n" ".- - - - - - - - - - - - - -. .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " "- -.\n" ": : : :\n" ": " "pets : : :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : +-----+-----" "+ :\n" ": | ptr | o---+---+-----+-->| o o | o o " "| :\n" ": | len | 2 | : : +-|-|-+-|-|-" "+ :\n" ": | capacity | 2 | : : | | | | +---------------" "+ :\n" ": +-----------+-------+ : : | | | '-->| name: \"Fido\" " "| :\n" ": : : | | | +---------------" "+ :\n" "`- - - - - - - - - - - - - -' : | | " "| :\n" " : | | | +----------------------" "+ :\n" " : | | '---->| \"::name\" " "| :\n" " : | | +----------------------" "+ :\n" " : | " "| :\n" " : | | +-" "+ :\n" " : | '-->|" "\\| :\n" " : | +-" "+ :\n" " : " "| :\n" " : | +----------------------" "+ :\n" " : '---->| \"::name\" " "| :\n" " : +----------------------" "+ :\n" " : :\n" " '- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " "- -'\n" "\n" "```" #: src/traits/trait-objects.md:72 msgid "" "Types that implement a given trait may be of different sizes. This makes it " "impossible to have things like `Vec` in the example above." msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-objects.md:73 msgid "" "`dyn Pet` is a way to tell the compiler about a dynamically sized type that " "implements `Pet`." msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-objects.md:74 msgid "" "In the example, `pets` holds _fat pointers_ to objects that implement `Pet`. " "The fat pointer consists of two components, a pointer to the actual object " "and a pointer to the virtual method table for the `Pet` implementation of " "that particular object." msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-objects.md:75 msgid "Compare these outputs in the above example:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-objects.md:76 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" " println!(\"{} {}\", std::mem::size_of::(), std::mem::size_of::" "());\n" " println!(\"{} {}\", std::mem::size_of::<&Dog>(), std::mem::size_of::" "<&Cat>());\n" " println!(\"{}\", std::mem::size_of::<&dyn Pet>());\n" " println!(\"{}\", std::mem::size_of::>());\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/deriving-traits.md:3 msgid "" "Rust derive macros work by automatically generating code that implements the " "specified traits for a data structure." msgstr "" #: src/traits/deriving-traits.md:5 msgid "You can let the compiler derive a number of traits as follows:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/deriving-traits.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Default)]\n" "struct Player {\n" " name: String,\n" " strength: u8,\n" " hit_points: u8,\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let p1 = Player::default();\n" " let p2 = p1.clone();\n" " println!(\"Is {:?}\\nequal to {:?}?\\nThe answer is {}!\", &p1, &p2,\n" " if p1 == p2 { \"yes\" } else { \"no\" });\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/default-methods.md:3 msgid "Traits can implement behavior in terms of other trait methods:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/default-methods.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "trait Equals {\n" " fn equals(&self, other: &Self) -> bool;\n" " fn not_equals(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {\n" " !self.equals(other)\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Centimeter(i16);\n" "\n" "impl Equals for Centimeter {\n" " fn equals(&self, other: &Centimeter) -> bool {\n" " self.0 == other.0\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let a = Centimeter(10);\n" " let b = Centimeter(20);\n" " println!(\"{a:?} equals {b:?}: {}\", a.equals(&b));\n" " println!(\"{a:?} not_equals {b:?}: {}\", a.not_equals(&b));\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/default-methods.md:32 msgid "" "Traits may specify pre-implemented (default) methods and methods that users " "are required to implement themselves. Methods with default implementations " "can rely on required methods." msgstr "" #: src/traits/default-methods.md:35 msgid "Move method `not_equals` to a new trait `NotEquals`." msgstr "" #: src/traits/default-methods.md:37 msgid "Make `Equals` a super trait for `NotEquals`." msgstr "" #: src/traits/default-methods.md:38 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "trait NotEquals: Equals {\n" " fn not_equals(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {\n" " !self.equals(other)\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/default-methods.md:46 msgid "Provide a blanket implementation of `NotEquals` for `Equals`." msgstr "" #: src/traits/default-methods.md:47 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "trait NotEquals {\n" " fn not_equals(&self, other: &Self) -> bool;\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl NotEquals for T where T: Equals {\n" " fn not_equals(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {\n" " !self.equals(other)\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/default-methods.md:58 msgid "" "With the blanket implementation, you no longer need `Equals` as a super " "trait for `NotEqual`." msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-bounds.md:3 msgid "" "When working with generics, you often want to require the types to implement " "some trait, so that you can call this trait's methods." msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-bounds.md:6 msgid "You can do this with `T: Trait` or `impl Trait`:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-bounds.md:8 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn duplicate(a: T) -> (T, T) {\n" " (a.clone(), a.clone())\n" "}\n" "\n" "// Syntactic sugar for:\n" "// fn add_42_millions>(x: T) -> i32 {\n" "fn add_42_millions(x: impl Into) -> i32 {\n" " x.into() + 42_000_000\n" "}\n" "\n" "// struct NotClonable;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let foo = String::from(\"foo\");\n" " let pair = duplicate(foo);\n" " println!(\"{pair:?}\");\n" "\n" " let many = add_42_millions(42_i8);\n" " println!(\"{many}\");\n" " let many_more = add_42_millions(10_000_000);\n" " println!(\"{many_more}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-bounds.md:35 msgid "Show a `where` clause, students will encounter it when reading code." msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-bounds.md:37 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "fn duplicate(a: T) -> (T, T)\n" "where\n" " T: Clone,\n" "{\n" " (a.clone(), a.clone())\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-bounds.md:46 msgid "It declutters the function signature if you have many parameters." msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-bounds.md:47 msgid "It has additional features making it more powerful." msgstr "" #: src/traits/trait-bounds.md:48 msgid "" "If someone asks, the extra feature is that the type on the left of \":\" can " "be arbitrary, like `Option`." msgstr "" #: src/traits/impl-trait.md:1 msgid "`impl Trait`" msgstr "" #: src/traits/impl-trait.md:3 msgid "" "Similar to trait bounds, an `impl Trait` syntax can be used in function " "arguments and return values:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/impl-trait.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::fmt::Display;\n" "\n" "fn get_x(name: impl Display) -> impl Display {\n" " format!(\"Hello {name}\")\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let x = get_x(\"foo\");\n" " println!(\"{x}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/impl-trait.md:19 msgid "`impl Trait` allows you to work with types which you cannot name." msgstr "" #: src/traits/impl-trait.md:23 msgid "" "The meaning of `impl Trait` is a bit different in the different positions." msgstr "" #: src/traits/impl-trait.md:25 msgid "" "For a parameter, `impl Trait` is like an anonymous generic parameter with a " "trait bound." msgstr "" #: src/traits/impl-trait.md:27 msgid "" "For a return type, it means that the return type is some concrete type that " "implements the trait, without naming the type. This can be useful when you " "don't want to expose the concrete type in a public API." msgstr "" #: src/traits/impl-trait.md:31 msgid "" "Inference is hard in return position. A function returning `impl Foo` picks " "the concrete type it returns, without writing it out in the source. A " "function returning a generic type like `collect() -> B` can return any " "type satisfying `B`, and the caller may need to choose one, such as with " "`let x: Vec<_> = foo.collect()` or with the turbofish, `foo.collect::" ">()`." msgstr "" #: src/traits/impl-trait.md:37 msgid "" "This example is great, because it uses `impl Display` twice. It helps to " "explain that nothing here enforces that it is _the same_ `impl Display` " "type. If we used a single `T: Display`, it would enforce the constraint " "that input `T` and return `T` type are the same type. It would not work for " "this particular function, as the type we expect as input is likely not what " "`format!` returns. If we wanted to do the same via `: Display` syntax, we'd " "need two independent generic parameters." msgstr "" #: src/traits/important-traits.md:3 msgid "" "We will now look at some of the most common traits of the Rust standard " "library:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/important-traits.md:5 msgid "" "[`Iterator`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/iter/trait.Iterator.html) and " "[`IntoIterator`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/iter/trait.IntoIterator.html) " "used in `for` loops," msgstr "" #: src/traits/important-traits.md:6 msgid "" "[`From`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/trait.From.html) and [`Into`]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/trait.Into.html) used to convert " "values," msgstr "" #: src/traits/important-traits.md:7 msgid "" "[`Read`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/io/trait.Read.html) and [`Write`]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/io/trait.Write.html) used for IO," msgstr "" #: src/traits/important-traits.md:8 msgid "" "[`Add`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/ops/trait.Add.html), [`Mul`](https://" "doc.rust-lang.org/std/ops/trait.Mul.html), ... used for operator " "overloading, and" msgstr "" #: src/traits/important-traits.md:9 msgid "" "[`Drop`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/ops/trait.Drop.html) used for " "defining destructors." msgstr "" #: src/traits/important-traits.md:10 msgid "" "[`Default`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/default/trait.Default.html) used " "to construct a default instance of a type." msgstr "" #: src/traits/iterator.md:1 msgid "Iterators" msgstr "" #: src/traits/iterator.md:3 msgid "" "You can implement the [`Iterator`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/iter/trait." "Iterator.html) trait on your own types:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/iterator.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "struct Fibonacci {\n" " curr: u32,\n" " next: u32,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Iterator for Fibonacci {\n" " type Item = u32;\n" "\n" " fn next(&mut self) -> Option {\n" " let new_next = self.curr + self.next;\n" " self.curr = self.next;\n" " self.next = new_next;\n" " Some(self.curr)\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let fib = Fibonacci { curr: 0, next: 1 };\n" " for (i, n) in fib.enumerate().take(5) {\n" " println!(\"fib({i}): {n}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/iterator.md:32 msgid "" "The `Iterator` trait implements many common functional programming " "operations over collections (e.g. `map`, `filter`, `reduce`, etc). This is " "the trait where you can find all the documentation about them. In Rust these " "functions should produce the code as efficient as equivalent imperative " "implementations." msgstr "" #: src/traits/iterator.md:37 msgid "" "`IntoIterator` is the trait that makes for loops work. It is implemented by " "collection types such as `Vec` and references to them such as `&Vec` " "and `&[T]`. Ranges also implement it. This is why you can iterate over a " "vector with `for i in some_vec { .. }` but `some_vec.next()` doesn't exist." msgstr "" #: src/traits/from-iterator.md:3 msgid "" "[`FromIterator`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/iter/trait.FromIterator.html) " "lets you build a collection from an [`Iterator`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/" "std/iter/trait.Iterator.html)." msgstr "" #: src/traits/from-iterator.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let primes = vec![2, 3, 5, 7];\n" " let prime_squares = primes\n" " .into_iter()\n" " .map(|prime| prime * prime)\n" " .collect::>();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/from-iterator.md:17 msgid "" "`Iterator` implements `fn collect(self) -> B where B: FromIterator, Self: Sized`" msgstr "" #: src/traits/from-iterator.md:23 msgid "" "There are also implementations which let you do cool things like convert an " "`Iterator>` into a `Result, E>`." msgstr "" #: src/traits/from-into.md:1 msgid "`From` and `Into`" msgstr "" #: src/traits/from-into.md:3 msgid "" "Types implement [`From`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/trait.From." "html) and [`Into`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/trait.Into.html) to " "facilitate type conversions:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/from-into.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let s = String::from(\"hello\");\n" " let addr = std::net::Ipv4Addr::from([127, 0, 0, 1]);\n" " let one = i16::from(true);\n" " let bigger = i32::from(123i16);\n" " println!(\"{s}, {addr}, {one}, {bigger}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/from-into.md:15 msgid "" "[`Into`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/trait.Into.html) is " "automatically implemented when [`From`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/" "convert/trait.From.html) is implemented:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/from-into.md:17 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let s: String = \"hello\".into();\n" " let addr: std::net::Ipv4Addr = [127, 0, 0, 1].into();\n" " let one: i16 = true.into();\n" " let bigger: i32 = 123i16.into();\n" " println!(\"{s}, {addr}, {one}, {bigger}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/from-into.md:29 msgid "" "That's why it is common to only implement `From`, as your type will get " "`Into` implementation too." msgstr "" #: src/traits/from-into.md:30 msgid "" "When declaring a function argument input type like \"anything that can be " "converted into a `String`\", the rule is opposite, you should use `Into`. " "Your function will accept types that implement `From` and those that _only_ " "implement `Into`." msgstr "" #: src/traits/read-write.md:1 msgid "`Read` and `Write`" msgstr "" #: src/traits/read-write.md:3 msgid "" "Using [`Read`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/io/trait.Read.html) and " "[`BufRead`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/io/trait.BufRead.html), you can " "abstract over `u8` sources:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/read-write.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::io::{BufRead, BufReader, Read, Result};\n" "\n" "fn count_lines(reader: R) -> usize {\n" " let buf_reader = BufReader::new(reader);\n" " buf_reader.lines().count()\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() -> Result<()> {\n" " let slice: &[u8] = b\"foo\\nbar\\nbaz\\n\";\n" " println!(\"lines in slice: {}\", count_lines(slice));\n" "\n" " let file = std::fs::File::open(std::env::current_exe()?)?;\n" " println!(\"lines in file: {}\", count_lines(file));\n" " Ok(())\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/read-write.md:23 msgid "" "Similarly, [`Write`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/io/trait.Write.html) lets " "you abstract over `u8` sinks:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/read-write.md:25 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::io::{Result, Write};\n" "\n" "fn log(writer: &mut W, msg: &str) -> Result<()> {\n" " writer.write_all(msg.as_bytes())?;\n" " writer.write_all(\"\\n\".as_bytes())\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() -> Result<()> {\n" " let mut buffer = Vec::new();\n" " log(&mut buffer, \"Hello\")?;\n" " log(&mut buffer, \"World\")?;\n" " println!(\"Logged: {:?}\", buffer);\n" " Ok(())\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/drop.md:1 msgid "The `Drop` Trait" msgstr "" #: src/traits/drop.md:3 msgid "" "Values which implement [`Drop`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/ops/trait.Drop." "html) can specify code to run when they go out of scope:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/drop.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "struct Droppable {\n" " name: &'static str,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Drop for Droppable {\n" " fn drop(&mut self) {\n" " println!(\"Dropping {}\", self.name);\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let a = Droppable { name: \"a\" };\n" " {\n" " let b = Droppable { name: \"b\" };\n" " {\n" " let c = Droppable { name: \"c\" };\n" " let d = Droppable { name: \"d\" };\n" " println!(\"Exiting block B\");\n" " }\n" " println!(\"Exiting block A\");\n" " }\n" " drop(a);\n" " println!(\"Exiting main\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/drop.md:34 src/traits/operators.md:26 msgid "Discussion points:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/drop.md:36 msgid "Why doesn't `Drop::drop` take `self`?" msgstr "" #: src/traits/drop.md:37 msgid "" "Short-answer: If it did, `std::mem::drop` would be called at the end of the " "block, resulting in another call to `Drop::drop`, and a stack overflow!" msgstr "" #: src/traits/drop.md:40 msgid "Try replacing `drop(a)` with `a.drop()`." msgstr "" #: src/traits/default.md:1 msgid "The `Default` Trait" msgstr "" #: src/traits/default.md:3 msgid "" "[`Default`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/default/trait.Default.html) trait " "produces a default value for a type." msgstr "" #: src/traits/default.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug, Default)]\n" "struct Derived {\n" " x: u32,\n" " y: String,\n" " z: Implemented,\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Implemented(String);\n" "\n" "impl Default for Implemented {\n" " fn default() -> Self {\n" " Self(\"John Smith\".into())\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let default_struct = Derived::default();\n" " println!(\"{default_struct:#?}\");\n" "\n" " let almost_default_struct = Derived {\n" " y: \"Y is set!\".into(),\n" " ..Derived::default()\n" " };\n" " println!(\"{almost_default_struct:#?}\");\n" "\n" " let nothing: Option = None;\n" " println!(\"{:#?}\", nothing.unwrap_or_default());\n" "}\n" "\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/default.md:40 msgid "" "It can be implemented directly or it can be derived via `#[derive(Default)]`." msgstr "" #: src/traits/default.md:41 msgid "" "A derived implementation will produce a value where all fields are set to " "their default values." msgstr "" #: src/traits/default.md:42 msgid "This means all types in the struct must implement `Default` too." msgstr "" #: src/traits/default.md:43 msgid "" "Standard Rust types often implement `Default` with reasonable values (e.g. " "`0`, `\"\"`, etc)." msgstr "" #: src/traits/default.md:44 msgid "The partial struct copy works nicely with default." msgstr "" #: src/traits/default.md:45 msgid "" "Rust standard library is aware that types can implement `Default` and " "provides convenience methods that use it." msgstr "" #: src/traits/default.md:46 msgid "" "the `..` syntax is called [struct update syntax](https://doc.rust-lang.org/" "book/ch05-01-defining-structs.html#creating-instances-from-other-instances-" "with-struct-update-syntax)" msgstr "" #: src/traits/operators.md:1 msgid "`Add`, `Mul`, ..." msgstr "" #: src/traits/operators.md:3 msgid "" "Operator overloading is implemented via traits in [`std::ops`](https://doc." "rust-lang.org/std/ops/index.html):" msgstr "" #: src/traits/operators.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone)]\n" "struct Point { x: i32, y: i32 }\n" "\n" "impl std::ops::Add for Point {\n" " type Output = Self;\n" "\n" " fn add(self, other: Self) -> Self {\n" " Self {x: self.x + other.x, y: self.y + other.y}\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let p1 = Point { x: 10, y: 20 };\n" " let p2 = Point { x: 100, y: 200 };\n" " println!(\"{:?} + {:?} = {:?}\", p1, p2, p1 + p2);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/operators.md:28 msgid "" "You could implement `Add` for `&Point`. In which situations is that useful? " msgstr "" #: src/traits/operators.md:29 msgid "" "Answer: `Add:add` consumes `self`. If type `T` for which you are overloading " "the operator is not `Copy`, you should consider overloading the operator for " "`&T` as well. This avoids unnecessary cloning on the call site." msgstr "" #: src/traits/operators.md:33 msgid "" "Why is `Output` an associated type? Could it be made a type parameter of the " "method?" msgstr "" #: src/traits/operators.md:34 msgid "" "Short answer: Function type parameters are controlled by the caller, but " "associated types (like `Output`) are controlled by the implementor of a " "trait." msgstr "" #: src/traits/operators.md:37 msgid "" "You could implement `Add` for two different types, e.g. `impl Add<(i32, " "i32)> for Point` would add a tuple to a `Point`." msgstr "" #: src/traits/closures.md:1 msgid "Closures" msgstr "" #: src/traits/closures.md:3 msgid "" "Closures or lambda expressions have types which cannot be named. However, " "they implement special [`Fn`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/ops/trait.Fn." "html), [`FnMut`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/ops/trait.FnMut.html), and " "[`FnOnce`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/ops/trait.FnOnce.html) traits:" msgstr "" #: src/traits/closures.md:8 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn apply_with_log(func: impl FnOnce(i32) -> i32, input: i32) -> i32 {\n" " println!(\"Calling function on {input}\");\n" " func(input)\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let add_3 = |x| x + 3;\n" " println!(\"add_3: {}\", apply_with_log(add_3, 10));\n" " println!(\"add_3: {}\", apply_with_log(add_3, 20));\n" "\n" " let mut v = Vec::new();\n" " let mut accumulate = |x: i32| {\n" " v.push(x);\n" " v.iter().sum::()\n" " };\n" " println!(\"accumulate: {}\", apply_with_log(&mut accumulate, 4));\n" " println!(\"accumulate: {}\", apply_with_log(&mut accumulate, 5));\n" "\n" " let multiply_sum = |x| x * v.into_iter().sum::();\n" " println!(\"multiply_sum: {}\", apply_with_log(multiply_sum, 3));\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/traits/closures.md:34 msgid "" "An `Fn` (e.g. `add_3`) neither consumes nor mutates captured values, or " "perhaps captures nothing at all. It can be called multiple times " "concurrently." msgstr "" #: src/traits/closures.md:37 msgid "" "An `FnMut` (e.g. `accumulate`) might mutate captured values. You can call it " "multiple times, but not concurrently." msgstr "" #: src/traits/closures.md:40 msgid "" "If you have an `FnOnce` (e.g. `multiply_sum`), you may only call it once. It " "might consume captured values." msgstr "" #: src/traits/closures.md:43 msgid "" "`FnMut` is a subtype of `FnOnce`. `Fn` is a subtype of `FnMut` and `FnOnce`. " "I.e. you can use an `FnMut` wherever an `FnOnce` is called for, and you can " "use an `Fn` wherever an `FnMut` or `FnOnce` is called for." msgstr "" #: src/traits/closures.md:47 msgid "" "The compiler also infers `Copy` (e.g. for `add_3`) and `Clone` (e.g. " "`multiply_sum`), depending on what the closure captures." msgstr "" #: src/traits/closures.md:50 msgid "" "By default, closures will capture by reference if they can. The `move` " "keyword makes them capture by value." msgstr "" #: src/traits/closures.md:52 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn make_greeter(prefix: String) -> impl Fn(&str) {\n" " return move |name| println!(\"{} {}\", prefix, name)\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let hi = make_greeter(\"Hi\".to_string());\n" " hi(\"there\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/morning.md:1 msgid "Day 3: Morning Exercises" msgstr "Dag 3: Formiddagsøvelser" #: src/exercises/day-3/morning.md:3 msgid "We will design a classical GUI library traits and trait objects." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:3 msgid "" "Let us design a classical GUI library using our new knowledge of traits and " "trait objects." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:6 msgid "We will have a number of widgets in our library:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:8 msgid "`Window`: has a `title` and contains other widgets." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:9 msgid "" "`Button`: has a `label` and a callback function which is invoked when the " "button is pressed." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:11 msgid "`Label`: has a `label`." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:13 msgid "The widgets will implement a `Widget` trait, see below." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:15 msgid "" "Copy the code below to , fill in the missing " "`draw_into` methods so that you implement the `Widget` trait:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:18 msgid "" "```rust,should_panic\n" "// TODO: remove this when you're done with your implementation.\n" "#![allow(unused_imports, unused_variables, dead_code)]\n" "\n" "pub trait Widget {\n" " /// Natural width of `self`.\n" " fn width(&self) -> usize;\n" "\n" " /// Draw the widget into a buffer.\n" " fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write);\n" "\n" " /// Draw the widget on standard output.\n" " fn draw(&self) {\n" " let mut buffer = String::new();\n" " self.draw_into(&mut buffer);\n" " println!(\"{buffer}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub struct Label {\n" " label: String,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Label {\n" " fn new(label: &str) -> Label {\n" " Label {\n" " label: label.to_owned(),\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub struct Button {\n" " label: Label,\n" " callback: Box,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Button {\n" " fn new(label: &str, callback: Box) -> Button {\n" " Button {\n" " label: Label::new(label),\n" " callback,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub struct Window {\n" " title: String,\n" " widgets: Vec>,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Window {\n" " fn new(title: &str) -> Window {\n" " Window {\n" " title: title.to_owned(),\n" " widgets: Vec::new(),\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn add_widget(&mut self, widget: Box) {\n" " self.widgets.push(widget);\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn inner_width(&self) -> usize {\n" " std::cmp::max(\n" " self.title.chars().count(),\n" " self.widgets.iter().map(|w| w.width()).max().unwrap_or(0),\n" " )\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "\n" "impl Widget for Label {\n" " fn width(&self) -> usize {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write) {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Widget for Button {\n" " fn width(&self) -> usize {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write) {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Widget for Window {\n" " fn width(&self) -> usize {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write) {\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut window = Window::new(\"Rust GUI Demo 1.23\");\n" " window.add_widget(Box::new(Label::new(\"This is a small text GUI demo." "\")));\n" " window.add_widget(Box::new(Button::new(\n" " \"Click me!\",\n" " Box::new(|| println!(\"You clicked the button!\")),\n" " )));\n" " window.draw();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:130 msgid "The output of the above program can be something simple like this:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:132 msgid "" "```text\n" "========\n" "Rust GUI Demo 1.23\n" "========\n" "\n" "This is a small text GUI demo.\n" "\n" "| Click me! |\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:142 msgid "" "If you want to draw aligned text, you can use the [fill/alignment](https://" "doc.rust-lang.org/std/fmt/index.html#fillalignment) formatting operators. In " "particular, notice how you can pad with different characters (here a `'/'`) " "and how you can control alignment:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:147 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let width = 10;\n" " println!(\"left aligned: |{:/width$}|\", \"foo\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:156 msgid "" "Using such alignment tricks, you can for example produce output like this:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/simple-gui.md:158 msgid "" "```text\n" "+--------------------------------+\n" "| Rust GUI Demo 1.23 |\n" "+================================+\n" "| This is a small text GUI demo. |\n" "| +-----------+ |\n" "| | Click me! | |\n" "| +-----------+ |\n" "+--------------------------------+\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling.md:3 msgid "Error handling in Rust is done using explicit control flow:" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling.md:5 msgid "Functions that can have errors list this in their return type," msgstr "" #: src/error-handling.md:6 msgid "There are no exceptions." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/panics.md:3 msgid "Rust will trigger a panic if a fatal error happens at runtime:" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/panics.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,should_panic\n" "fn main() {\n" " let v = vec![10, 20, 30];\n" " println!(\"v[100]: {}\", v[100]);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/panics.md:12 msgid "Panics are for unrecoverable and unexpected errors." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/panics.md:13 msgid "Panics are symptoms of bugs in the program." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/panics.md:14 msgid "" "Use non-panicking APIs (such as `Vec::get`) if crashing is not acceptable." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/panic-unwind.md:1 msgid "Catching the Stack Unwinding" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/panic-unwind.md:3 msgid "" "By default, a panic will cause the stack to unwind. The unwinding can be " "caught:" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/panic-unwind.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::panic;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let result = panic::catch_unwind(|| {\n" " println!(\"hello!\");\n" " });\n" " assert!(result.is_ok());\n" " \n" " let result = panic::catch_unwind(|| {\n" " panic!(\"oh no!\");\n" " });\n" " assert!(result.is_err());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/panic-unwind.md:21 msgid "" "This can be useful in servers which should keep running even if a single " "request crashes." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/panic-unwind.md:23 msgid "This does not work if `panic = 'abort'` is set in your `Cargo.toml`." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/result.md:1 msgid "Structured Error Handling with `Result`" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/result.md:3 msgid "" "We have already seen the `Result` enum. This is used pervasively when errors " "are expected as part of normal operation:" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/result.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::fs;\n" "use std::io::Read;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let file = fs::File::open(\"diary.txt\");\n" " match file {\n" " Ok(mut file) => {\n" " let mut contents = String::new();\n" " file.read_to_string(&mut contents);\n" " println!(\"Dear diary: {contents}\");\n" " },\n" " Err(err) => {\n" " println!(\"The diary could not be opened: {err}\");\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/result.md:27 msgid "" "As with `Option`, the successful value sits inside of `Result`, forcing the " "developer to explicitly extract it. This encourages error checking. In the " "case where an error should never happen, `unwrap()` or `expect()` can be " "called, and this is a signal of the developer intent too." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/result.md:30 msgid "" "`Result` documentation is a recommended read. Not during the course, but it " "is worth mentioning. It contains a lot of convenience methods and functions " "that help functional-style programming. " msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/try-operator.md:1 msgid "Propagating Errors with `?`" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/try-operator.md:3 msgid "" "The try-operator `?` is used to return errors to the caller. It lets you " "turn the common" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/try-operator.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "match some_expression {\n" " Ok(value) => value,\n" " Err(err) => return Err(err),\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/try-operator.md:13 msgid "into the much simpler" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/try-operator.md:15 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "some_expression?\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/try-operator.md:19 msgid "We can use this to simplify our error handling code:" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/try-operator.md:21 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::{fs, io};\n" "use std::io::Read;\n" "\n" "fn read_username(path: &str) -> Result {\n" " let username_file_result = fs::File::open(path);\n" " let mut username_file = match username_file_result {\n" " Ok(file) => file,\n" " Err(err) => return Err(err),\n" " };\n" "\n" " let mut username = String::new();\n" " match username_file.read_to_string(&mut username) {\n" " Ok(_) => Ok(username),\n" " Err(err) => Err(err),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " //fs::write(\"config.dat\", \"alice\").unwrap();\n" " let username = read_username(\"config.dat\");\n" " println!(\"username or error: {username:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/try-operator.md:50 #: src/error-handling/converting-error-types-example.md:52 msgid "The `username` variable can be either `Ok(string)` or `Err(error)`." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/try-operator.md:51 #: src/error-handling/converting-error-types-example.md:53 msgid "" "Use the `fs::write` call to test out the different scenarios: no file, empty " "file, file with username." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/try-operator.md:52 msgid "" "The return type of the function has to be compatible with the nested " "functions it calls. For instance, a function returning a `Result` " "can only apply the `?` operator on a function returning a `Result`. It cannot apply the `?` operator on a function returning an " "`Option` or `Result` unless `OtherErr` implements " "`From`. Reciprocally, a function returning an `Option` can only " "apply the `?` operator on a function returning an `Option`." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/try-operator.md:57 msgid "" "You can convert incompatible types into one another with the different " "`Option` and `Result` methods such as `Option::ok_or`, `Result::ok`, " "`Result::err`." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/converting-error-types.md:3 msgid "" "The effective expansion of `?` is a little more complicated than previously " "indicated:" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/converting-error-types.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "expression?\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/converting-error-types.md:9 msgid "works the same as" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/converting-error-types.md:11 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "match expression {\n" " Ok(value) => value,\n" " Err(err) => return Err(From::from(err)),\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/converting-error-types.md:18 msgid "" "The `From::from` call here means we attempt to convert the error type to the " "type returned by the function:" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/converting-error-types-example.md:3 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::error::Error;\n" "use std::fmt::{self, Display, Formatter};\n" "use std::fs::{self, File};\n" "use std::io::{self, Read};\n" "\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "enum ReadUsernameError {\n" " IoError(io::Error),\n" " EmptyUsername(String),\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Error for ReadUsernameError {}\n" "\n" "impl Display for ReadUsernameError {\n" " fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter) -> fmt::Result {\n" " match self {\n" " Self::IoError(e) => write!(f, \"IO error: {e}\"),\n" " Self::EmptyUsername(filename) => write!(f, \"Found no username " "in {filename}\"),\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl From for ReadUsernameError {\n" " fn from(err: io::Error) -> ReadUsernameError {\n" " ReadUsernameError::IoError(err)\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn read_username(path: &str) -> Result {\n" " let mut username = String::with_capacity(100);\n" " File::open(path)?.read_to_string(&mut username)?;\n" " if username.is_empty() {\n" " return Err(ReadUsernameError::EmptyUsername(String::from(path)));\n" " }\n" " Ok(username)\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " //fs::write(\"config.dat\", \"\").unwrap();\n" " let username = read_username(\"config.dat\");\n" " println!(\"username or error: {username:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/converting-error-types-example.md:55 msgid "" "It is good practice for all error types that don't need to be `no_std` to " "implement `std::error::Error`, which requires `Debug` and `Display`. The " "`Error` crate for `core` is only available in [nightly](https://github.com/" "rust-lang/rust/issues/103765), so not fully `no_std` compatible yet." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/converting-error-types-example.md:57 msgid "" "It's generally helpful for them to implement `Clone` and `Eq` too where " "possible, to make life easier for tests and consumers of your library. In " "this case we can't easily do so, because `io::Error` doesn't implement them." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/deriving-error-enums.md:3 msgid "" "The [thiserror](https://docs.rs/thiserror/) crate is a popular way to create " "an error enum like we did on the previous page:" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/deriving-error-enums.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use std::{fs, io};\n" "use std::io::Read;\n" "use thiserror::Error;\n" "\n" "#[derive(Debug, Error)]\n" "enum ReadUsernameError {\n" " #[error(\"Could not read: {0}\")]\n" " IoError(#[from] io::Error),\n" " #[error(\"Found no username in {0}\")]\n" " EmptyUsername(String),\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn read_username(path: &str) -> Result {\n" " let mut username = String::new();\n" " fs::File::open(path)?.read_to_string(&mut username)?;\n" " if username.is_empty() {\n" " return Err(ReadUsernameError::EmptyUsername(String::from(path)));\n" " }\n" " Ok(username)\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " //fs::write(\"config.dat\", \"\").unwrap();\n" " match read_username(\"config.dat\") {\n" " Ok(username) => println!(\"Username: {username}\"),\n" " Err(err) => println!(\"Error: {err}\"),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/deriving-error-enums.md:39 msgid "" "`thiserror`'s derive macro automatically implements `std::error::Error`, and " "optionally `Display` (if the `#[error(...)]` attributes are provided) and " "`From` (if the `#[from]` attribute is added). It also works for structs." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/deriving-error-enums.md:43 msgid "It doesn't affect your public API, which makes it good for libraries." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/dynamic-errors.md:3 msgid "" "Sometimes we want to allow any type of error to be returned without writing " "our own enum covering all the different possibilities. `std::error::Error` " "makes this easy." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/dynamic-errors.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use std::fs;\n" "use std::io::Read;\n" "use thiserror::Error;\n" "use std::error::Error;\n" "\n" "#[derive(Clone, Debug, Eq, Error, PartialEq)]\n" "#[error(\"Found no username in {0}\")]\n" "struct EmptyUsernameError(String);\n" "\n" "fn read_username(path: &str) -> Result> {\n" " let mut username = String::new();\n" " fs::File::open(path)?.read_to_string(&mut username)?;\n" " if username.is_empty() {\n" " return Err(EmptyUsernameError(String::from(path)).into());\n" " }\n" " Ok(username)\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " //fs::write(\"config.dat\", \"\").unwrap();\n" " match read_username(\"config.dat\") {\n" " Ok(username) => println!(\"Username: {username}\"),\n" " Err(err) => println!(\"Error: {err}\"),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/dynamic-errors.md:36 msgid "" "This saves on code, but gives up the ability to cleanly handle different " "error cases differently in the program. As such it's generally not a good " "idea to use `Box` in the public API of a library, but it can be a " "good option in a program where you just want to display the error message " "somewhere." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/error-contexts.md:3 msgid "" "The widely used [anyhow](https://docs.rs/anyhow/) crate can help you add " "contextual information to your errors and allows you to have fewer custom " "error types:" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/error-contexts.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use std::{fs, io};\n" "use std::io::Read;\n" "use anyhow::{Context, Result, bail};\n" "\n" "fn read_username(path: &str) -> Result {\n" " let mut username = String::with_capacity(100);\n" " fs::File::open(path)\n" " .with_context(|| format!(\"Failed to open {path}\"))?\n" " .read_to_string(&mut username)\n" " .context(\"Failed to read\")?;\n" " if username.is_empty() {\n" " bail!(\"Found no username in {path}\");\n" " }\n" " Ok(username)\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " //fs::write(\"config.dat\", \"\").unwrap();\n" " match read_username(\"config.dat\") {\n" " Ok(username) => println!(\"Username: {username}\"),\n" " Err(err) => println!(\"Error: {err:?}\"),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/error-contexts.md:35 msgid "`anyhow::Result` is a type alias for `Result`." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/error-contexts.md:36 msgid "" "`anyhow::Error` is essentially a wrapper around `Box`. As such " "it's again generally not a good choice for the public API of a library, but " "is widely used in applications." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/error-contexts.md:38 msgid "" "Actual error type inside of it can be extracted for examination if necessary." msgstr "" #: src/error-handling/error-contexts.md:39 msgid "" "Functionality provided by `anyhow::Result` may be familiar to Go " "developers, as it provides similar usage patterns and ergonomics to `(T, " "error)` from Go." msgstr "" #: src/testing.md:3 msgid "Rust and Cargo come with a simple unit test framework:" msgstr "" #: src/testing.md:5 msgid "Unit tests are supported throughout your code." msgstr "" #: src/testing.md:7 msgid "Integration tests are supported via the `tests/` directory." msgstr "" #: src/testing/unit-tests.md:3 msgid "Mark unit tests with `#[test]`:" msgstr "" #: src/testing/unit-tests.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,ignore\n" "fn first_word(text: &str) -> &str {\n" " match text.find(' ') {\n" " Some(idx) => &text[..idx],\n" " None => &text,\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_empty() {\n" " assert_eq!(first_word(\"\"), \"\");\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_single_word() {\n" " assert_eq!(first_word(\"Hello\"), \"Hello\");\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_multiple_words() {\n" " assert_eq!(first_word(\"Hello World\"), \"Hello\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/testing/unit-tests.md:29 msgid "Use `cargo test` to find and run the unit tests." msgstr "" #: src/testing/test-modules.md:3 msgid "" "Unit tests are often put in a nested module (run tests on the [Playground]" "(https://play.rust-lang.org/)):" msgstr "" #: src/testing/test-modules.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn helper(a: &str, b: &str) -> String {\n" " format!(\"{a} {b}\")\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub fn main() {\n" " println!(\"{}\", helper(\"Hello\", \"World\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[cfg(test)]\n" "mod tests {\n" " use super::*;\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_helper() {\n" " assert_eq!(helper(\"foo\", \"bar\"), \"foo bar\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/testing/test-modules.md:26 msgid "This lets you unit test private helpers." msgstr "" #: src/testing/test-modules.md:27 msgid "The `#[cfg(test)]` attribute is only active when you run `cargo test`." msgstr "" #: src/testing/doc-tests.md:3 msgid "Rust has built-in support for documentation tests:" msgstr "" #: src/testing/doc-tests.md:5 msgid "" "```rust\n" "/// Shortens a string to the given length.\n" "///\n" "/// ```\n" "/// use playground::shorten_string;\n" "/// assert_eq!(shorten_string(\"Hello World\", 5), \"Hello\");\n" "/// assert_eq!(shorten_string(\"Hello World\", 20), \"Hello World\");\n" "/// ```\n" "pub fn shorten_string(s: &str, length: usize) -> &str {\n" " &s[..std::cmp::min(length, s.len())]\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/testing/doc-tests.md:18 msgid "Code blocks in `///` comments are automatically seen as Rust code." msgstr "" #: src/testing/doc-tests.md:19 msgid "The code will be compiled and executed as part of `cargo test`." msgstr "" #: src/testing/doc-tests.md:20 msgid "" "Test the above code on the [Rust Playground](https://play.rust-lang.org/?" "version=stable&mode=debug&edition=2021&gist=3ce2ad13ea1302f6572cb15cd96becf0)." msgstr "" #: src/testing/integration-tests.md:3 msgid "If you want to test your library as a client, use an integration test." msgstr "" #: src/testing/integration-tests.md:5 msgid "Create a `.rs` file under `tests/`:" msgstr "" #: src/testing/integration-tests.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "use my_library::init;\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_init() {\n" " assert!(init().is_ok());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/testing/integration-tests.md:16 msgid "These tests only have access to the public API of your crate." msgstr "" #: src/testing/useful-crates.md:1 msgid "Useful crates for writing tests" msgstr "" #: src/testing/useful-crates.md:3 msgid "Rust comes with only basic support for writing tests." msgstr "" #: src/testing/useful-crates.md:5 msgid "Here are some additional crates which we recommend for writing tests:" msgstr "" #: src/testing/useful-crates.md:7 msgid "" "[googletest](https://docs.rs/googletest): Comprehensive test assertion " "library in the tradition of GoogleTest for C++." msgstr "" #: src/testing/useful-crates.md:8 msgid "[proptest](https://docs.rs/proptest): Property-based testing for Rust." msgstr "" #: src/testing/useful-crates.md:9 msgid "" "[rstest](https://docs.rs/rstest): Support for fixtures and parameterised " "tests." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:3 msgid "The Rust language has two parts:" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:5 msgid "**Safe Rust:** memory safe, no undefined behavior possible." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:6 msgid "" "**Unsafe Rust:** can trigger undefined behavior if preconditions are " "violated." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:8 msgid "" "We will be seeing mostly safe Rust in this course, but it's important to " "know what Unsafe Rust is." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:11 msgid "" "Unsafe code is usually small and isolated, and its correctness should be " "carefully documented. It is usually wrapped in a safe abstraction layer." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:14 msgid "Unsafe Rust gives you access to five new capabilities:" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:16 msgid "Dereference raw pointers." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:17 msgid "Access or modify mutable static variables." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:18 msgid "Access `union` fields." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:19 msgid "Call `unsafe` functions, including `extern` functions." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:20 msgid "Implement `unsafe` traits." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:22 msgid "" "We will briefly cover unsafe capabilities next. For full details, please see " "[Chapter 19.1 in the Rust Book](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch19-01-" "unsafe-rust.html) and the [Rustonomicon](https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/)." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe.md:28 msgid "" "Unsafe Rust does not mean the code is incorrect. It means that developers " "have turned off the compiler safety features and have to write correct code " "by themselves. It means the compiler no longer enforces Rust's memory-safety " "rules." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/raw-pointers.md:3 msgid "Creating pointers is safe, but dereferencing them requires `unsafe`:" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/raw-pointers.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut num = 5;\n" "\n" " let r1 = &mut num as *mut i32;\n" " let r2 = r1 as *const i32;\n" "\n" " // Safe because r1 and r2 were obtained from references and so are\n" " // guaranteed to be non-null and properly aligned, the objects " "underlying\n" " // the references from which they were obtained are live throughout the\n" " // whole unsafe block, and they are not accessed either through the\n" " // references or concurrently through any other pointers.\n" " unsafe {\n" " println!(\"r1 is: {}\", *r1);\n" " *r1 = 10;\n" " println!(\"r2 is: {}\", *r2);\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/raw-pointers.md:27 msgid "" "It is good practice (and required by the Android Rust style guide) to write " "a comment for each `unsafe` block explaining how the code inside it " "satisfies the safety requirements of the unsafe operations it is doing." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/raw-pointers.md:31 msgid "" "In the case of pointer dereferences, this means that the pointers must be " "[_valid_](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/ptr/index.html#safety), i.e.:" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/raw-pointers.md:34 msgid "The pointer must be non-null." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/raw-pointers.md:35 msgid "" "The pointer must be _dereferenceable_ (within the bounds of a single " "allocated object)." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/raw-pointers.md:36 msgid "The object must not have been deallocated." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/raw-pointers.md:37 msgid "There must not be concurrent accesses to the same location." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/raw-pointers.md:38 msgid "" "If the pointer was obtained by casting a reference, the underlying object " "must be live and no reference may be used to access the memory." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/raw-pointers.md:41 msgid "In most cases the pointer must also be properly aligned." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/mutable-static-variables.md:3 msgid "It is safe to read an immutable static variable:" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/mutable-static-variables.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "static HELLO_WORLD: &str = \"Hello, world!\";\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"HELLO_WORLD: {HELLO_WORLD}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/mutable-static-variables.md:13 msgid "" "However, since data races can occur, it is unsafe to read and write mutable " "static variables:" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/mutable-static-variables.md:16 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0;\n" "\n" "fn add_to_counter(inc: u32) {\n" " unsafe { COUNTER += inc; } // Potential data race!\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " add_to_counter(42);\n" "\n" " unsafe { println!(\"COUNTER: {COUNTER}\"); } // Potential data race!\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/mutable-static-variables.md:32 msgid "" "Using a mutable static is generally a bad idea, but there are some cases " "where it might make sense in low-level `no_std` code, such as implementing a " "heap allocator or working with some C APIs." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/unions.md:3 msgid "Unions are like enums, but you need to track the active field yourself:" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/unions.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "#[repr(C)]\n" "union MyUnion {\n" " i: u8,\n" " b: bool,\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let u = MyUnion { i: 42 };\n" " println!(\"int: {}\", unsafe { u.i });\n" " println!(\"bool: {}\", unsafe { u.b }); // Undefined behavior!\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/unions.md:21 msgid "" "Unions are very rarely needed in Rust as you can usually use an enum. They " "are occasionally needed for interacting with C library APIs." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/unions.md:24 msgid "" "If you just want to reinterpret bytes as a different type, you probably want " "[`std::mem::transmute`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/std/mem/fn." "transmute.html) or a safe wrapper such as the [`zerocopy`](https://crates.io/" "crates/zerocopy) crate." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/calling-unsafe-functions.md:3 msgid "" "A function or method can be marked `unsafe` if it has extra preconditions " "you must uphold to avoid undefined behaviour:" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/calling-unsafe-functions.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "fn main() {\n" " let emojis = \"🗻∈🌏\";\n" "\n" " // Safe because the indices are in the correct order, within the bounds " "of\n" " // the string slice, and lie on UTF-8 sequence boundaries.\n" " unsafe {\n" " println!(\"emoji: {}\", emojis.get_unchecked(0..4));\n" " println!(\"emoji: {}\", emojis.get_unchecked(4..7));\n" " println!(\"emoji: {}\", emojis.get_unchecked(7..11));\n" " }\n" "\n" " println!(\"char count: {}\", count_chars(unsafe { emojis." "get_unchecked(0..7) }));\n" "\n" " // Not upholding the UTF-8 encoding requirement breaks memory safety!\n" " // println!(\"emoji: {}\", unsafe { emojis.get_unchecked(0..3) });\n" " // println!(\"char count: {}\", count_chars(unsafe { emojis." "get_unchecked(0..3) }));\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn count_chars(s: &str) -> usize {\n" " s.chars().map(|_| 1).sum()\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/writing-unsafe-functions.md:3 msgid "" "You can mark your own functions as `unsafe` if they require particular " "conditions to avoid undefined behaviour." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/writing-unsafe-functions.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "/// Swaps the values pointed to by the given pointers.\n" "///\n" "/// # Safety\n" "///\n" "/// The pointers must be valid and properly aligned.\n" "unsafe fn swap(a: *mut u8, b: *mut u8) {\n" " let temp = *a;\n" " *a = *b;\n" " *b = temp;\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut a = 42;\n" " let mut b = 66;\n" "\n" " // Safe because ...\n" " unsafe {\n" " swap(&mut a, &mut b);\n" " }\n" "\n" " println!(\"a = {}, b = {}\", a, b);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/writing-unsafe-functions.md:33 msgid "" "We wouldn't actually use pointers for this because it can be done safely " "with references." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/writing-unsafe-functions.md:35 msgid "" "Note that unsafe code is allowed within an unsafe function without an " "`unsafe` block. We can prohibit this with `#[deny(unsafe_op_in_unsafe_fn)]`. " "Try adding it and see what happens." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/extern-functions.md:1 msgid "Calling External Code" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/extern-functions.md:3 msgid "" "Functions from other languages might violate the guarantees of Rust. Calling " "them is thus unsafe:" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/extern-functions.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "extern \"C\" {\n" " fn abs(input: i32) -> i32;\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " unsafe {\n" " // Undefined behavior if abs misbehaves.\n" " println!(\"Absolute value of -3 according to C: {}\", abs(-3));\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/extern-functions.md:21 msgid "" "This is usually only a problem for extern functions which do things with " "pointers which might violate Rust's memory model, but in general any C " "function might have undefined behaviour under any arbitrary circumstances." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/extern-functions.md:25 msgid "" "The `\"C\"` in this example is the ABI; [other ABIs are available too]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/items/external-blocks.html)." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/unsafe-traits.md:3 msgid "" "Like with functions, you can mark a trait as `unsafe` if the implementation " "must guarantee particular conditions to avoid undefined behaviour." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/unsafe-traits.md:6 msgid "" "For example, the `zerocopy` crate has an unsafe trait that looks [something " "like this](https://docs.rs/zerocopy/latest/zerocopy/trait.AsBytes.html):" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/unsafe-traits.md:9 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::mem::size_of_val;\n" "use std::slice;\n" "\n" "/// ...\n" "/// # Safety\n" "/// The type must have a defined representation and no padding.\n" "pub unsafe trait AsBytes {\n" " fn as_bytes(&self) -> &[u8] {\n" " unsafe {\n" " slice::from_raw_parts(self as *const Self as *const u8, " "size_of_val(self))\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// Safe because u32 has a defined representation and no padding.\n" "unsafe impl AsBytes for u32 {}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/unsafe-traits.md:30 msgid "" "There should be a `# Safety` section on the Rustdoc for the trait explaining " "the requirements for the trait to be safely implemented." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/unsafe-traits.md:33 msgid "" "The actual safety section for `AsBytes` is rather longer and more " "complicated." msgstr "" #: src/unsafe/unsafe-traits.md:35 msgid "The built-in `Send` and `Sync` traits are unsafe." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/afternoon.md:1 msgid "Day 3: Afternoon Exercises" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/afternoon.md:3 msgid "Let us build a safe wrapper for reading directory content!" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/afternoon.md:5 msgid "" "For this exercise, we suggest using a local dev environment instead of the " "Playground. This will allow you to run your binary on your own machine." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/afternoon.md:8 msgid "" "To get started, follow the [running locally](../../cargo/running-locally.md) " "instructions." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/afternoon.md:14 msgid "" "After looking at the exercise, you can look at the [solution](solutions-" "afternoon.md) provided." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:3 msgid "" "Rust has great support for calling functions through a _foreign function " "interface_ (FFI). We will use this to build a safe wrapper for the `libc` " "functions you would use from C to read the filenames of a directory." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:7 msgid "You will want to consult the manual pages:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:9 msgid "[`opendir(3)`](https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man3/opendir.3.html)" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:10 msgid "[`readdir(3)`](https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man3/readdir.3.html)" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:11 msgid "[`closedir(3)`](https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man3/closedir.3.html)" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:13 msgid "" "You will also want to browse the [`std::ffi`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/" "ffi/) module. There you find a number of string types which you need for the " "exercise:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:16 msgid "Encoding" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:16 msgid "Use" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:18 msgid "" "[`str`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/primitive.str.html) and [`String`]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/string/struct.String.html)" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:18 msgid "UTF-8" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:18 msgid "Text processing in Rust" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:19 msgid "" "[`CStr`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/ffi/struct.CStr.html) and [`CString`]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/ffi/struct.CString.html)" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:19 msgid "NUL-terminated" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:19 msgid "Communicating with C functions" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:20 msgid "" "[`OsStr`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/ffi/struct.OsStr.html) and " "[`OsString`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/ffi/struct.OsString.html)" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:20 msgid "OS-specific" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:20 msgid "Communicating with the OS" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:22 msgid "You will convert between all these types:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:24 msgid "" "`&str` to `CString`: you need to allocate space for a trailing `\\0` " "character," msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:25 msgid "`CString` to `*const i8`: you need a pointer to call C functions," msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:26 msgid "" "`*const i8` to `&CStr`: you need something which can find the trailing `\\0` " "character," msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:27 msgid "" "`&CStr` to `&[u8]`: a slice of bytes is the universal interface for \"some " "unknow data\"," msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:28 msgid "" "`&[u8]` to `&OsStr`: `&OsStr` is a step towards `OsString`, use [`OsStrExt`]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/os/unix/ffi/trait.OsStrExt.html) to create it," msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:31 msgid "" "`&OsStr` to `OsString`: you need to clone the data in `&OsStr` to be able to " "return it and call `readdir` again." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:34 msgid "" "The [Nomicon](https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/ffi.html) also has a very " "useful chapter about FFI." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:45 msgid "" "Copy the code below to and fill in the missing " "functions and methods:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/safe-ffi-wrapper.md:48 msgid "" "```rust,should_panic\n" "// TODO: remove this when you're done with your implementation.\n" "#![allow(unused_imports, unused_variables, dead_code)]\n" "\n" "mod ffi {\n" " use std::os::raw::{c_char, c_int};\n" " #[cfg(not(target_os = \"macos\"))]\n" " use std::os::raw::{c_long, c_ulong, c_ushort, c_uchar};\n" "\n" " // Opaque type. See https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/ffi.html.\n" " #[repr(C)]\n" " pub struct DIR {\n" " _data: [u8; 0],\n" " _marker: core::marker::PhantomData<(*mut u8, core::marker::" "PhantomPinned)>,\n" " }\n" "\n" " // Layout according to the Linux man page for readdir(3), where ino_t " "and\n" " // off_t are resolved according to the definitions in\n" " // /usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/{sys/types.h, bits/typesizes.h}.\n" " #[cfg(not(target_os = \"macos\"))]\n" " #[repr(C)]\n" " pub struct dirent {\n" " pub d_ino: c_ulong,\n" " pub d_off: c_long,\n" " pub d_reclen: c_ushort,\n" " pub d_type: c_uchar,\n" " pub d_name: [c_char; 256],\n" " }\n" "\n" " // Layout according to the macOS man page for dir(5).\n" " #[cfg(all(target_os = \"macos\"))]\n" " #[repr(C)]\n" " pub struct dirent {\n" " pub d_fileno: u64,\n" " pub d_seekoff: u64,\n" " pub d_reclen: u16,\n" " pub d_namlen: u16,\n" " pub d_type: u8,\n" " pub d_name: [c_char; 1024],\n" " }\n" "\n" " extern \"C\" {\n" " pub fn opendir(s: *const c_char) -> *mut DIR;\n" "\n" " #[cfg(not(all(target_os = \"macos\", target_arch = \"x86_64\")))]\n" " pub fn readdir(s: *mut DIR) -> *const dirent;\n" "\n" " // See https://github.com/rust-lang/libc/issues/414 and the section " "on\n" " // _DARWIN_FEATURE_64_BIT_INODE in the macOS man page for stat(2).\n" " //\n" " // \"Platforms that existed before these updates were available\" " "refers\n" " // to macOS (as opposed to iOS / wearOS / etc.) on Intel and " "PowerPC.\n" " #[cfg(all(target_os = \"macos\", target_arch = \"x86_64\"))]\n" " #[link_name = \"readdir$INODE64\"]\n" " pub fn readdir(s: *mut DIR) -> *const dirent;\n" "\n" " pub fn closedir(s: *mut DIR) -> c_int;\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "use std::ffi::{CStr, CString, OsStr, OsString};\n" "use std::os::unix::ffi::OsStrExt;\n" "\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct DirectoryIterator {\n" " path: CString,\n" " dir: *mut ffi::DIR,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl DirectoryIterator {\n" " fn new(path: &str) -> Result {\n" " // Call opendir and return a Ok value if that worked,\n" " // otherwise return Err with a message.\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Iterator for DirectoryIterator {\n" " type Item = OsString;\n" " fn next(&mut self) -> Option {\n" " // Keep calling readdir until we get a NULL pointer back.\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Drop for DirectoryIterator {\n" " fn drop(&mut self) {\n" " // Call closedir as needed.\n" " unimplemented!()\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() -> Result<(), String> {\n" " let iter = DirectoryIterator::new(\".\")?;\n" " println!(\"files: {:#?}\", iter.collect::>());\n" " Ok(())\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android.md:1 msgid "Welcome to Rust in Android" msgstr "" #: src/android.md:3 msgid "" "Rust is supported for native platform development on Android. This means " "that you can write new operating system services in Rust, as well as " "extending existing services." msgstr "" #: src/android.md:7 msgid "" "We will attempt to call Rust from one of your own projects today. So try to " "find a little corner of your code base where we can move some lines of code " "to Rust. The fewer dependencies and \"exotic\" types the better. Something " "that parses some raw bytes would be ideal." msgstr "" #: src/android/setup.md:3 msgid "" "We will be using an Android Virtual Device to test our code. Make sure you " "have access to one or create a new one with:" msgstr "" #: src/android/setup.md:6 msgid "" "```shell\n" "source build/envsetup.sh\n" "lunch aosp_cf_x86_64_phone-userdebug\n" "acloud create\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/setup.md:12 msgid "" "Please see the [Android Developer Codelab](https://source.android.com/docs/" "setup/start) for details." msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:3 msgid "The Android build system (Soong) supports Rust via a number of modules:" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:5 msgid "Module Type" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:5 msgid "Description" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:7 msgid "`rust_binary`" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:7 msgid "Produces a Rust binary." msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:8 msgid "`rust_library`" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:8 msgid "Produces a Rust library, and provides both `rlib` and `dylib` variants." msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:9 msgid "`rust_ffi`" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:9 msgid "" "Produces a Rust C library usable by `cc` modules, and provides both static " "and shared variants." msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:10 msgid "`rust_proc_macro`" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:10 msgid "" "Produces a `proc-macro` Rust library. These are analogous to compiler " "plugins." msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:11 msgid "`rust_test`" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:11 msgid "Produces a Rust test binary that uses the standard Rust test harness." msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:12 msgid "`rust_fuzz`" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:12 msgid "Produces a Rust fuzz binary leveraging `libfuzzer`." msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:13 msgid "`rust_protobuf`" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:13 msgid "" "Generates source and produces a Rust library that provides an interface for " "a particular protobuf." msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:14 msgid "`rust_bindgen`" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:14 msgid "" "Generates source and produces a Rust library containing Rust bindings to C " "libraries." msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules.md:16 msgid "We will look at `rust_binary` and `rust_library` next." msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/binary.md:1 msgid "Rust Binaries" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/binary.md:3 msgid "" "Let us start with a simple application. At the root of an AOSP checkout, " "create the following files:" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/binary.md:6 src/android/build-rules/library.md:13 msgid "_hello_rust/Android.bp_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/binary.md:8 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "rust_binary {\n" " name: \"hello_rust\",\n" " crate_name: \"hello_rust\",\n" " srcs: [\"src/main.rs\"],\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/binary.md:16 src/android/build-rules/library.md:34 msgid "_hello_rust/src/main.rs_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/binary.md:18 msgid "" "```rust\n" "//! Rust demo.\n" "\n" "/// Prints a greeting to standard output.\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"Hello from Rust!\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/binary.md:27 msgid "You can now build, push, and run the binary:" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/binary.md:29 msgid "" "```shell\n" "m hello_rust\n" "adb push \"$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/hello_rust /data/local/tmp\"\n" "adb shell /data/local/tmp/hello_rust\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/binary.md:35 msgid "" "```text\n" "Hello from Rust!\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/library.md:1 msgid "Rust Libraries" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/library.md:3 msgid "You use `rust_library` to create a new Rust library for Android." msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/library.md:5 msgid "Here we declare a dependency on two libraries:" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/library.md:7 msgid "`libgreeting`, which we define below," msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/library.md:8 msgid "" "`libtextwrap`, which is a crate already vendored in [`external/rust/crates/`]" "(https://cs.android.com/android/platform/superproject/+/master:external/rust/" "crates/)." msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/library.md:15 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "rust_binary {\n" " name: \"hello_rust_with_dep\",\n" " crate_name: \"hello_rust_with_dep\",\n" " srcs: [\"src/main.rs\"],\n" " rustlibs: [\n" " \"libgreetings\",\n" " \"libtextwrap\",\n" " ],\n" " prefer_rlib: true,\n" "}\n" "\n" "rust_library {\n" " name: \"libgreetings\",\n" " crate_name: \"greetings\",\n" " srcs: [\"src/lib.rs\"],\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/library.md:36 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "//! Rust demo.\n" "\n" "use greetings::greeting;\n" "use textwrap::fill;\n" "\n" "/// Prints a greeting to standard output.\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"{}\", fill(&greeting(\"Bob\"), 24));\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/library.md:48 msgid "_hello_rust/src/lib.rs_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/library.md:50 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "//! Greeting library.\n" "\n" "/// Greet `name`.\n" "pub fn greeting(name: &str) -> String {\n" " format!(\"Hello {name}, it is very nice to meet you!\")\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/library.md:59 msgid "You build, push, and run the binary like before:" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/library.md:61 msgid "" "```shell\n" "m hello_rust_with_dep\n" "adb push \"$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/hello_rust_with_dep /data/local/" "tmp\"\n" "adb shell /data/local/tmp/hello_rust_with_dep\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/build-rules/library.md:67 msgid "" "```text\n" "Hello Bob, it is very\n" "nice to meet you!\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl.md:3 msgid "" "The [Android Interface Definition Language (AIDL)](https://developer.android." "com/guide/components/aidl) is supported in Rust:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl.md:6 msgid "Rust code can call existing AIDL servers," msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl.md:7 msgid "You can create new AIDL servers in Rust." msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/interface.md:1 msgid "AIDL Interfaces" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/interface.md:3 msgid "You declare the API of your service using an AIDL interface:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/interface.md:5 msgid "" "_birthday_service/aidl/com/example/birthdayservice/IBirthdayService.aidl_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/interface.md:7 msgid "" "```java\n" "package com.example.birthdayservice;\n" "\n" "/** Birthday service interface. */\n" "interface IBirthdayService {\n" " /** Generate a Happy Birthday message. */\n" " String wishHappyBirthday(String name, int years);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/interface.md:17 msgid "_birthday_service/aidl/Android.bp_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/interface.md:19 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "aidl_interface {\n" " name: \"com.example.birthdayservice\",\n" " srcs: [\"com/example/birthdayservice/*.aidl\"],\n" " unstable: true,\n" " backend: {\n" " rust: { // Rust is not enabled by default\n" " enabled: true,\n" " },\n" " },\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/interface.md:32 msgid "" "Add `vendor_available: true` if your AIDL file is used by a binary in the " "vendor partition." msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/implementation.md:1 msgid "Service Implementation" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/implementation.md:3 msgid "We can now implement the AIDL service:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/implementation.md:5 msgid "_birthday_service/src/lib.rs_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/implementation.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "//! Implementation of the `IBirthdayService` AIDL interface.\n" "use com_example_birthdayservice::aidl::com::example::birthdayservice::" "IBirthdayService::IBirthdayService;\n" "use com_example_birthdayservice::binder;\n" "\n" "/// The `IBirthdayService` implementation.\n" "pub struct BirthdayService;\n" "\n" "impl binder::Interface for BirthdayService {}\n" "\n" "impl IBirthdayService for BirthdayService {\n" " fn wishHappyBirthday(&self, name: &str, years: i32) -> binder::" "Result {\n" " Ok(format!(\n" " \"Happy Birthday {name}, congratulations with the {years} years!" "\"\n" " ))\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/implementation.md:26 src/android/aidl/server.md:28 #: src/android/aidl/client.md:37 msgid "_birthday_service/Android.bp_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/implementation.md:28 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "rust_library {\n" " name: \"libbirthdayservice\",\n" " srcs: [\"src/lib.rs\"],\n" " crate_name: \"birthdayservice\",\n" " rustlibs: [\n" " \"com.example.birthdayservice-rust\",\n" " \"libbinder_rs\",\n" " ],\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/server.md:1 msgid "AIDL Server" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/server.md:3 msgid "Finally, we can create a server which exposes the service:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/server.md:5 msgid "_birthday_service/src/server.rs_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/server.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "//! Birthday service.\n" "use birthdayservice::BirthdayService;\n" "use com_example_birthdayservice::aidl::com::example::birthdayservice::" "IBirthdayService::BnBirthdayService;\n" "use com_example_birthdayservice::binder;\n" "\n" "const SERVICE_IDENTIFIER: &str = \"birthdayservice\";\n" "\n" "/// Entry point for birthday service.\n" "fn main() {\n" " let birthday_service = BirthdayService;\n" " let birthday_service_binder = BnBirthdayService::new_binder(\n" " birthday_service,\n" " binder::BinderFeatures::default(),\n" " );\n" " binder::add_service(SERVICE_IDENTIFIER, birthday_service_binder." "as_binder())\n" " .expect(\"Failed to register service\");\n" " binder::ProcessState::join_thread_pool()\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/server.md:30 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "rust_binary {\n" " name: \"birthday_server\",\n" " crate_name: \"birthday_server\",\n" " srcs: [\"src/server.rs\"],\n" " rustlibs: [\n" " \"com.example.birthdayservice-rust\",\n" " \"libbinder_rs\",\n" " \"libbirthdayservice\",\n" " ],\n" " prefer_rlib: true,\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/deploy.md:3 msgid "We can now build, push, and start the service:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/deploy.md:5 msgid "" "```shell\n" "m birthday_server\n" "adb push \"$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/birthday_server /data/local/" "tmp\"\n" "adb shell /data/local/tmp/birthday_server\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/deploy.md:11 msgid "In another terminal, check that the service runs:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/deploy.md:13 msgid "" "```shell\n" "adb shell service check birthdayservice\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/deploy.md:17 msgid "" "```text\n" "Service birthdayservice: found\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/deploy.md:21 msgid "You can also call the service with `service call`:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/deploy.md:23 msgid "" "```shell\n" "adb shell service call birthdayservice 1 s16 Bob i32 24\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/deploy.md:27 msgid "" "```text\n" "Result: Parcel(\n" " 0x00000000: 00000000 00000036 00610048 00700070 '....6...H.a.p.p.'\n" " 0x00000010: 00200079 00690042 00740072 00640068 'y. .B.i.r.t.h.d.'\n" " 0x00000020: 00790061 00420020 0062006f 0020002c 'a.y. .B.o.b.,. .'\n" " 0x00000030: 006f0063 0067006e 00610072 00750074 'c.o.n.g.r.a.t.u.'\n" " 0x00000040: 0061006c 00690074 006e006f 00200073 'l.a.t.i.o.n.s. .'\n" " 0x00000050: 00690077 00680074 00740020 00650068 'w.i.t.h. .t.h.e.'\n" " 0x00000060: 00320020 00200034 00650079 00720061 ' .2.4. .y.e.a.r.'\n" " 0x00000070: 00210073 00000000 's.!..... ')\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/client.md:1 msgid "AIDL Client" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/client.md:3 msgid "Finally, we can create a Rust client for our new service." msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/client.md:5 msgid "_birthday_service/src/client.rs_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/client.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "//! Birthday service.\n" "use com_example_birthdayservice::aidl::com::example::birthdayservice::" "IBirthdayService::IBirthdayService;\n" "use com_example_birthdayservice::binder;\n" "\n" "const SERVICE_IDENTIFIER: &str = \"birthdayservice\";\n" "\n" "/// Connect to the BirthdayService.\n" "pub fn connect() -> Result, binder::" "StatusCode> {\n" " binder::get_interface(SERVICE_IDENTIFIER)\n" "}\n" "\n" "/// Call the birthday service.\n" "fn main() -> Result<(), binder::Status> {\n" " let name = std::env::args()\n" " .nth(1)\n" " .unwrap_or_else(|| String::from(\"Bob\"));\n" " let years = std::env::args()\n" " .nth(2)\n" " .and_then(|arg| arg.parse::().ok())\n" " .unwrap_or(42);\n" "\n" " binder::ProcessState::start_thread_pool();\n" " let service = connect().expect(\"Failed to connect to " "BirthdayService\");\n" " let msg = service.wishHappyBirthday(&name, years)?;\n" " println!(\"{msg}\");\n" " Ok(())\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/client.md:39 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "rust_binary {\n" " name: \"birthday_client\",\n" " crate_name: \"birthday_client\",\n" " srcs: [\"src/client.rs\"],\n" " rustlibs: [\n" " \"com.example.birthdayservice-rust\",\n" " \"libbinder_rs\",\n" " ],\n" " prefer_rlib: true,\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/client.md:52 msgid "Notice that the client does not depend on `libbirthdayservice`." msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/client.md:54 msgid "Build, push, and run the client on your device:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/client.md:56 msgid "" "```shell\n" "m birthday_client\n" "adb push \"$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/birthday_client /data/local/" "tmp\"\n" "adb shell /data/local/tmp/birthday_client Charlie 60\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/client.md:62 msgid "" "```text\n" "Happy Birthday Charlie, congratulations with the 60 years!\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/changing.md:3 msgid "" "Let us extend the API with more functionality: we want to let clients " "specify a list of lines for the birthday card:" msgstr "" #: src/android/aidl/changing.md:6 msgid "" "```java\n" "package com.example.birthdayservice;\n" "\n" "/** Birthday service interface. */\n" "interface IBirthdayService {\n" " /** Generate a Happy Birthday message. */\n" " String wishHappyBirthday(String name, int years, in String[] text);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/logging.md:3 msgid "" "You should use the `log` crate to automatically log to `logcat` (on-device) " "or `stdout` (on-host):" msgstr "" #: src/android/logging.md:6 msgid "_hello_rust_logs/Android.bp_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/logging.md:8 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "rust_binary {\n" " name: \"hello_rust_logs\",\n" " crate_name: \"hello_rust_logs\",\n" " srcs: [\"src/main.rs\"],\n" " rustlibs: [\n" " \"liblog_rust\",\n" " \"liblogger\",\n" " ],\n" " prefer_rlib: true,\n" " host_supported: true,\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/logging.md:22 msgid "_hello_rust_logs/src/main.rs_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/logging.md:24 msgid "" "```rust,ignore\n" "//! Rust logging demo.\n" "\n" "use log::{debug, error, info};\n" "\n" "/// Logs a greeting.\n" "fn main() {\n" " logger::init(\n" " logger::Config::default()\n" " .with_tag_on_device(\"rust\")\n" " .with_min_level(log::Level::Trace),\n" " );\n" " debug!(\"Starting program.\");\n" " info!(\"Things are going fine.\");\n" " error!(\"Something went wrong!\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/logging.md:42 src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:98 #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:73 msgid "Build, push, and run the binary on your device:" msgstr "" #: src/android/logging.md:44 msgid "" "```shell\n" "m hello_rust_logs\n" "adb push \"$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/hello_rust_logs /data/local/" "tmp\"\n" "adb shell /data/local/tmp/hello_rust_logs\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/logging.md:50 msgid "The logs show up in `adb logcat`:" msgstr "" #: src/android/logging.md:52 #, fuzzy msgid "" "```shell\n" "adb logcat -s rust\n" "```" msgstr "" "```shell\n" "$ sudo apt install cargo rust-src rustfmt\n" "```" #: src/android/logging.md:56 msgid "" "```text\n" "09-08 08:38:32.454 2420 2420 D rust: hello_rust_logs: Starting program.\n" "09-08 08:38:32.454 2420 2420 I rust: hello_rust_logs: Things are going " "fine.\n" "09-08 08:38:32.454 2420 2420 E rust: hello_rust_logs: Something went " "wrong!\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability.md:3 msgid "" "Rust has excellent support for interoperability with other languages. This " "means that you can:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability.md:6 msgid "Call Rust functions from other languages." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability.md:7 msgid "Call functions written in other languages from Rust." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability.md:9 msgid "" "When you call functions in a foreign language we say that you're using a " "_foreign function interface_, also known as FFI." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c.md:1 msgid "Interoperability with C" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c.md:3 msgid "" "Rust has full support for linking object files with a C calling convention. " "Similarly, you can export Rust functions and call them from C." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c.md:6 msgid "You can do it by hand if you want:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c.md:8 msgid "" "```rust\n" "extern \"C\" {\n" " fn abs(x: i32) -> i32;\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let x = -42;\n" " let abs_x = unsafe { abs(x) };\n" " println!(\"{x}, {abs_x}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c.md:20 msgid "" "We already saw this in the [Safe FFI Wrapper exercise](../../exercises/day-3/" "safe-ffi-wrapper.md)." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c.md:23 msgid "" "This assumes full knowledge of the target platform. Not recommended for " "production." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c.md:26 msgid "We will look at better options next." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:1 msgid "Using Bindgen" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:3 msgid "" "The [bindgen](https://rust-lang.github.io/rust-bindgen/introduction.html) " "tool can auto-generate bindings from a C header file." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:6 msgid "First create a small C library:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:8 msgid "_interoperability/bindgen/libbirthday.h_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:10 msgid "" "```c\n" "typedef struct card {\n" " const char* name;\n" " int years;\n" "} card;\n" "\n" "void print_card(const card* card);\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:19 msgid "_interoperability/bindgen/libbirthday.c_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:21 msgid "" "```c\n" "#include \n" "#include \"libbirthday.h\"\n" "\n" "void print_card(const card* card) {\n" " printf(\"+--------------\\n\");\n" " printf(\"| Happy Birthday %s!\\n\", card->name);\n" " printf(\"| Congratulations with the %i years!\\n\", card->years);\n" " printf(\"+--------------\\n\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:33 msgid "Add this to your `Android.bp` file:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:35 #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:55 #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:69 #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:108 msgid "_interoperability/bindgen/Android.bp_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:37 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "cc_library {\n" " name: \"libbirthday\",\n" " srcs: [\"libbirthday.c\"],\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:44 msgid "" "Create a wrapper header file for the library (not strictly needed in this " "example):" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:47 msgid "_interoperability/bindgen/libbirthday_wrapper.h_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:49 msgid "" "```c\n" "#include \"libbirthday.h\"\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:53 msgid "You can now auto-generate the bindings:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:57 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "rust_bindgen {\n" " name: \"libbirthday_bindgen\",\n" " crate_name: \"birthday_bindgen\",\n" " wrapper_src: \"libbirthday_wrapper.h\",\n" " source_stem: \"bindings\",\n" " static_libs: [\"libbirthday\"],\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:67 msgid "Finally, we can use the bindings in our Rust program:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:71 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "rust_binary {\n" " name: \"print_birthday_card\",\n" " srcs: [\"main.rs\"],\n" " rustlibs: [\"libbirthday_bindgen\"],\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:79 msgid "_interoperability/bindgen/main.rs_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:81 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "//! Bindgen demo.\n" "\n" "use birthday_bindgen::{card, print_card};\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let name = std::ffi::CString::new(\"Peter\").unwrap();\n" " let card = card {\n" " name: name.as_ptr(),\n" " years: 42,\n" " };\n" " unsafe {\n" " print_card(&card as *const card);\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:100 msgid "" "```shell\n" "m print_birthday_card\n" "adb push \"$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/print_birthday_card /data/local/" "tmp\"\n" "adb shell /data/local/tmp/print_birthday_card\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:106 msgid "Finally, we can run auto-generated tests to ensure the bindings work:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:110 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "rust_test {\n" " name: \"libbirthday_bindgen_test\",\n" " srcs: [\":libbirthday_bindgen\"],\n" " crate_name: \"libbirthday_bindgen_test\",\n" " test_suites: [\"general-tests\"],\n" " auto_gen_config: true,\n" " clippy_lints: \"none\", // Generated file, skip linting\n" " lints: \"none\",\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/bindgen.md:122 msgid "" "```shell\n" "atest libbirthday_bindgen_test\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:1 msgid "Calling Rust" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:3 msgid "Exporting Rust functions and types to C is easy:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:5 msgid "_interoperability/rust/libanalyze/analyze.rs_" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "//! Rust FFI demo.\n" "#![deny(improper_ctypes_definitions)]\n" "\n" "use std::os::raw::c_int;\n" "\n" "/// Analyze the numbers.\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "pub extern \"C\" fn analyze_numbers(x: c_int, y: c_int) {\n" " if x < y {\n" " println!(\"x ({x}) is smallest!\");\n" " } else {\n" " println!(\"y ({y}) is probably larger than x ({x})\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:24 msgid "_interoperability/rust/libanalyze/analyze.h_" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:26 msgid "" "```c\n" "#ifndef ANALYSE_H\n" "#define ANALYSE_H\n" "\n" "extern \"C\" {\n" "void analyze_numbers(int x, int y);\n" "}\n" "\n" "#endif\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:37 msgid "_interoperability/rust/libanalyze/Android.bp_" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:39 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "rust_ffi {\n" " name: \"libanalyze_ffi\",\n" " crate_name: \"analyze_ffi\",\n" " srcs: [\"analyze.rs\"],\n" " include_dirs: [\".\"],\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:48 msgid "We can now call this from a C binary:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:50 msgid "_interoperability/rust/analyze/main.c_" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:52 msgid "" "```c\n" "#include \"analyze.h\"\n" "\n" "int main() {\n" " analyze_numbers(10, 20);\n" " analyze_numbers(123, 123);\n" " return 0;\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:62 msgid "_interoperability/rust/analyze/Android.bp_" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:64 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "cc_binary {\n" " name: \"analyze_numbers\",\n" " srcs: [\"main.c\"],\n" " static_libs: [\"libanalyze_ffi\"],\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:75 msgid "" "```shell\n" "m analyze_numbers\n" "adb push \"$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/analyze_numbers /data/local/" "tmp\"\n" "adb shell /data/local/tmp/analyze_numbers\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/with-c/rust.md:83 msgid "" "`#[no_mangle]` disables Rust's usual name mangling, so the exported symbol " "will just be the name of the function. You can also use `#[export_name = " "\"some_name\"]` to specify whatever name you want." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/cpp.md:3 msgid "" "The [CXX crate](https://cxx.rs/) makes it possible to do safe " "interoperability between Rust and C++." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/cpp.md:6 msgid "The overall approach looks like this:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/cpp.md:10 msgid "" "See the [CXX tutorial](https://cxx.rs/tutorial.html) for an full example of " "using this." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/cpp.md:14 msgid "" "At this point, the instructor should switch to the [CXX tutorial](https://" "cxx.rs/tutorial.html)." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/cpp.md:16 msgid "Walk the students through the tutorial step by step." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/cpp.md:18 msgid "" "Highlight how CXX presents a clean interface without unsafe code in _both " "languages_." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/cpp.md:20 msgid "" "Show the correspondence between [Rust and C++ types](https://cxx.rs/bindings." "html):" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/cpp.md:22 msgid "" "Explain how a Rust `String` cannot map to a C++ `std::string` (the latter " "does not uphold the UTF-8 invariant). Show that despite being different " "types, `rust::String` in C++ can be easily constructed from a C++ `std::" "string`, making it very ergonomic to use." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/cpp.md:28 msgid "" "Explain that a Rust function returning `Result` becomes a function " "which throws a `E` exception in C++ (and vice versa)." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:1 msgid "Interoperability with Java" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:3 msgid "" "Java can load shared objects via [Java Native Interface (JNI)](https://en." "wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_Native_Interface). The [`jni` crate](https://docs.rs/" "jni/) allows you to create a compatible library." msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:7 msgid "First, we create a Rust function to export to Java:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:9 msgid "_interoperability/java/src/lib.rs_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:11 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "//! Rust <-> Java FFI demo.\n" "\n" "use jni::objects::{JClass, JString};\n" "use jni::sys::jstring;\n" "use jni::JNIEnv;\n" "\n" "/// HelloWorld::hello method implementation.\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "pub extern \"system\" fn Java_HelloWorld_hello(\n" " env: JNIEnv,\n" " _class: JClass,\n" " name: JString,\n" ") -> jstring {\n" " let input: String = env.get_string(name).unwrap().into();\n" " let greeting = format!(\"Hello, {input}!\");\n" " let output = env.new_string(greeting).unwrap();\n" " output.into_inner()\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:32 #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:62 msgid "_interoperability/java/Android.bp_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:34 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "rust_ffi_shared {\n" " name: \"libhello_jni\",\n" " crate_name: \"hello_jni\",\n" " srcs: [\"src/lib.rs\"],\n" " rustlibs: [\"libjni\"],\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:43 msgid "Finally, we can call this function from Java:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:45 msgid "_interoperability/java/HelloWorld.java_:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:47 msgid "" "```java\n" "class HelloWorld {\n" " private static native String hello(String name);\n" "\n" " static {\n" " System.loadLibrary(\"hello_jni\");\n" " }\n" "\n" " public static void main(String[] args) {\n" " String output = HelloWorld.hello(\"Alice\");\n" " System.out.println(output);\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:64 msgid "" "```javascript\n" "java_binary {\n" " name: \"helloworld_jni\",\n" " srcs: [\"HelloWorld.java\"],\n" " main_class: \"HelloWorld\",\n" " required: [\"libhello_jni\"],\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:73 msgid "Finally, you can build, sync, and run the binary:" msgstr "" #: src/android/interoperability/java.md:75 msgid "" "```shell\n" "m helloworld_jni\n" "adb sync # requires adb root && adb remount\n" "adb shell /system/bin/helloworld_jni\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/android/morning.md:3 msgid "" "This is a group exercise: We will look at one of the projects you work with " "and try to integrate some Rust into it. Some suggestions:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/android/morning.md:6 msgid "Call your AIDL service with a client written in Rust." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/android/morning.md:8 msgid "Move a function from your project to Rust and call it." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/android/morning.md:12 msgid "" "No solution is provided here since this is open-ended: it relies on someone " "in the class having a piece of code which you can turn in to Rust on the fly." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal.md:1 msgid "Welcome to Bare Metal Rust" msgstr "Velkommen til Rust på det rå jern" #: src/bare-metal.md:3 msgid "" "This is a standalone one-day course about bare-metal Rust, aimed at people " "who are familiar with the basics of Rust (perhaps from completing the " "Comprehensive Rust course), and ideally also have some experience with bare-" "metal programming in some other language such as C." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal.md:7 msgid "" "Today we will talk about 'bare-metal' Rust: running Rust code without an OS " "underneath us. This will be divided into several parts:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal.md:10 msgid "What is `no_std` Rust?" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal.md:11 msgid "Writing firmware for microcontrollers." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal.md:12 msgid "Writing bootloader / kernel code for application processors." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal.md:13 msgid "Some useful crates for bare-metal Rust development." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal.md:15 msgid "" "For the microcontroller part of the course we will use the [BBC micro:bit]" "(https://microbit.org/) v2 as an example. It's a [development board](https://" "tech.microbit.org/hardware/) based on the Nordic nRF51822 microcontroller " "with some LEDs and buttons, an I2C-connected accelerometer and compass, and " "an on-board SWD debugger." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal.md:20 msgid "" "To get started, install some tools we'll need later. On gLinux or Debian:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal.md:22 msgid "" "```bash\n" "sudo apt install gcc-aarch64-linux-gnu gdb-multiarch libudev-dev picocom pkg-" "config qemu-system-arm\n" "rustup update\n" "rustup target add aarch64-unknown-none thumbv7em-none-eabihf\n" "rustup component add llvm-tools-preview\n" "cargo install cargo-binutils cargo-embed\n" "```" msgstr "" "```bash\n" "sudo apt install gcc-aarch64-linux-gnu gdb-multiarch libudev-dev picocom pkg-" "config qemu-system-arm\n" "rustup update\n" "rustup target add aarch64-unknown-none thumbv7em-none-eabihf\n" "rustup component add llvm-tools-preview\n" "cargo install cargo-binutils cargo-embed\n" "```" #: src/bare-metal.md:30 msgid "" "And give users in the `plugdev` group access to the micro:bit programmer:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal.md:32 msgid "" "```bash\n" "echo 'SUBSYSTEM==\"usb\", ATTR{idVendor}==\"0d28\", MODE=\"0664\", " "GROUP=\"plugdev\"' |\\\n" " sudo tee /etc/udev/rules.d/50-microbit.rules\n" "sudo udevadm control --reload-rules\n" "```" msgstr "" "```bash\n" "echo 'SUBSYSTEM==\"usb\", ATTR{idVendor}==\"0d28\", MODE=\"0664\", " "GROUP=\"plugdev\"' |\\\n" " sudo tee /etc/udev/rules.d/50-microbit.rules\n" "sudo udevadm control --reload-rules\n" "```" #: src/bare-metal.md:38 msgid "On MacOS:" msgstr "På MacOS:" #: src/bare-metal.md:40 msgid "" "```bash\n" "xcode-select --install\n" "brew install gdb picocom qemu\n" "brew install --cask gcc-aarch64-embedded\n" "rustup update\n" "rustup target add aarch64-unknown-none thumbv7em-none-eabihf\n" "rustup component add llvm-tools-preview\n" "cargo install cargo-binutils cargo-embed\n" "```" msgstr "" "```bash\n" "xcode-select --install\n" "brew install gdb picocom qemu\n" "brew install --cask gcc-aarch64-embedded\n" "rustup update\n" "rustup target add aarch64-unknown-none thumbv7em-none-eabihf\n" "rustup component add llvm-tools-preview\n" "cargo install cargo-binutils cargo-embed\n" "```" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:1 msgid "`no_std`" msgstr "`no_std`" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:7 msgid "`core`" msgstr "`core`" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:12 src/bare-metal/alloc.md:1 msgid "`alloc`" msgstr "`alloc`" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:17 msgid "`std`" msgstr "`std`" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:24 msgid "Slices, `&str`, `CStr`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:25 msgid "`NonZeroU8`..." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:26 msgid "`Option`, `Result`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:27 msgid "`Display`, `Debug`, `write!`..." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:29 msgid "`panic!`, `assert_eq!`..." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:30 msgid "`NonNull` and all the usual pointer-related functions" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:31 msgid "`Future` and `async`/`await`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:32 msgid "`fence`, `AtomicBool`, `AtomicPtr`, `AtomicU32`..." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:33 msgid "`Duration`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:38 msgid "`Box`, `Cow`, `Arc`, `Rc`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:39 msgid "`Vec`, `BinaryHeap`, `BtreeMap`, `LinkedList`, `VecDeque`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:40 msgid "`String`, `CString`, `format!`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:45 msgid "`Error`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:47 msgid "`Mutex`, `Condvar`, `Barrier`, `Once`, `RwLock`, `mpsc`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:48 msgid "`File` and the rest of `fs`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:49 msgid "`println!`, `Read`, `Write`, `Stdin`, `Stdout` and the rest of `io`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:50 msgid "`Path`, `OsString`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:51 msgid "`net`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:52 msgid "`Command`, `Child`, `ExitCode`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:53 msgid "`spawn`, `sleep` and the rest of `thread`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:54 msgid "`SystemTime`, `Instant`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:62 msgid "`HashMap` depends on RNG." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/no_std.md:63 msgid "`std` re-exports the contents of both `core` and `alloc`." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/minimal.md:1 msgid "A minimal `no_std` program" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/minimal.md:3 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "use core::panic::PanicInfo;\n" "\n" "#[panic_handler]\n" "fn panic(_panic: &PanicInfo) -> ! {\n" " loop {}\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/minimal.md:17 msgid "This will compile to an empty binary." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/minimal.md:18 msgid "`std` provides a panic handler; without it we must provide our own." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/minimal.md:19 msgid "It can also be provided by another crate, such as `panic-halt`." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/minimal.md:20 msgid "" "Depending on the target, you may need to compile with `panic = \"abort\"` to " "avoid an error about `eh_personality`." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/minimal.md:22 msgid "" "Note that there is no `main` or any other entry point; it's up to you to " "define your own entry point. This will typically involve a linker script and " "some assembly code to set things up ready for Rust code to run." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/alloc.md:3 msgid "" "To use `alloc` you must implement a [global (heap) allocator](https://doc." "rust-lang.org/stable/std/alloc/trait.GlobalAlloc.html)." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/alloc.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "extern crate alloc;\n" "extern crate panic_halt as _;\n" "\n" "use alloc::string::ToString;\n" "use alloc::vec::Vec;\n" "use buddy_system_allocator::LockedHeap;\n" "\n" "#[global_allocator]\n" "static HEAP_ALLOCATOR: LockedHeap<32> = LockedHeap::<32>::new();\n" "\n" "static mut HEAP: [u8; 65536] = [0; 65536];\n" "\n" "pub fn entry() {\n" " // Safe because `HEAP` is only used here and `entry` is only called " "once.\n" " unsafe {\n" " // Give the allocator some memory to allocate.\n" " HEAP_ALLOCATOR\n" " .lock()\n" " .init(HEAP.as_mut_ptr() as usize, HEAP.len());\n" " }\n" "\n" " // Now we can do things that require heap allocation.\n" " let mut v = Vec::new();\n" " v.push(\"A string\".to_string());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/alloc.md:39 msgid "" "`buddy_system_allocator` is a third-party crate implementing a basic buddy " "system allocator. Other crates are available, or you can write your own or " "hook into your existing allocator." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/alloc.md:41 msgid "" "The const parameter of `LockedHeap` is the max order of the allocator; i.e. " "in this case it can allocate regions of up to 2\\*\\*32 bytes." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/alloc.md:43 msgid "" "If any crate in your dependency tree depends on `alloc` then you must have " "exactly one global allocator defined in your binary. Usually this is done in " "the top-level binary crate." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/alloc.md:45 msgid "" "`extern crate panic_halt as _` is necessary to ensure that the `panic_halt` " "crate is linked in so we get its panic handler." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/alloc.md:47 msgid "This example will build but not run, as it doesn't have an entry point." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers.md:3 msgid "" "The `cortex_m_rt` crate provides (among other things) a reset handler for " "Cortex M microcontrollers." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "extern crate panic_halt as _;\n" "\n" "mod interrupts;\n" "\n" "use cortex_m_rt::entry;\n" "\n" "#[entry]\n" "fn main() -> ! {\n" " loop {}\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers.md:21 msgid "" "Next we'll look at how to access peripherals, with increasing levels of " "abstraction." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers.md:25 msgid "" "The `cortex_m_rt::entry` macro requires that the function have type `fn() -" "> !`, because returning to the reset handler doesn't make sense." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers.md:27 msgid "Run the example with `cargo embed --bin minimal`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/mmio.md:3 msgid "" "Most microcontrollers access peripherals via memory-mapped IO. Let's try " "turning on an LED on our micro:bit:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/mmio.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "extern crate panic_halt as _;\n" "\n" "mod interrupts;\n" "\n" "use core::mem::size_of;\n" "use cortex_m_rt::entry;\n" "\n" "/// GPIO port 0 peripheral address\n" "const GPIO_P0: usize = 0x5000_0000;\n" "\n" "// GPIO peripheral offsets\n" "const PIN_CNF: usize = 0x700;\n" "const OUTSET: usize = 0x508;\n" "const OUTCLR: usize = 0x50c;\n" "\n" "// PIN_CNF fields\n" "const DIR_OUTPUT: u32 = 0x1;\n" "const INPUT_DISCONNECT: u32 = 0x1 << 1;\n" "const PULL_DISABLED: u32 = 0x0 << 2;\n" "const DRIVE_S0S1: u32 = 0x0 << 8;\n" "const SENSE_DISABLED: u32 = 0x0 << 16;\n" "\n" "#[entry]\n" "fn main() -> ! {\n" " // Configure GPIO 0 pins 21 and 28 as push-pull outputs.\n" " let pin_cnf_21 = (GPIO_P0 + PIN_CNF + 21 * size_of::()) as *mut " "u32;\n" " let pin_cnf_28 = (GPIO_P0 + PIN_CNF + 28 * size_of::()) as *mut " "u32;\n" " // Safe because the pointers are to valid peripheral control registers, " "and\n" " // no aliases exist.\n" " unsafe {\n" " pin_cnf_21.write_volatile(\n" " DIR_OUTPUT | INPUT_DISCONNECT | PULL_DISABLED | DRIVE_S0S1 | " "SENSE_DISABLED,\n" " );\n" " pin_cnf_28.write_volatile(\n" " DIR_OUTPUT | INPUT_DISCONNECT | PULL_DISABLED | DRIVE_S0S1 | " "SENSE_DISABLED,\n" " );\n" " }\n" "\n" " // Set pin 28 low and pin 21 high to turn the LED on.\n" " let gpio0_outset = (GPIO_P0 + OUTSET) as *mut u32;\n" " let gpio0_outclr = (GPIO_P0 + OUTCLR) as *mut u32;\n" " // Safe because the pointers are to valid peripheral control registers, " "and\n" " // no aliases exist.\n" " unsafe {\n" " gpio0_outclr.write_volatile(1 << 28);\n" " gpio0_outset.write_volatile(1 << 21);\n" " }\n" "\n" " loop {}\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/mmio.md:64 msgid "" "GPIO 0 pin 21 is connected to the first column of the LED matrix, and pin 28 " "to the first row." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/mmio.md:66 #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/pacs.md:59 #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/hals.md:43 #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/board-support.md:34 msgid "Run the example with:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/mmio.md:68 msgid "" "```sh\n" "cargo embed --bin mmio\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/pacs.md:1 msgid "Peripheral Access Crates" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/pacs.md:3 msgid "" "[`svd2rust`](https://crates.io/crates/svd2rust) generates mostly-safe Rust " "wrappers for memory-mapped peripherals from [CMSIS-SVD](https://www.keil.com/" "pack/doc/CMSIS/SVD/html/index.html) files." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/pacs.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "extern crate panic_halt as _;\n" "\n" "use cortex_m_rt::entry;\n" "use nrf52833_pac::Peripherals;\n" "\n" "#[entry]\n" "fn main() -> ! {\n" " let p = Peripherals::take().unwrap();\n" " let gpio0 = p.P0;\n" "\n" " // Configure GPIO 0 pins 21 and 28 as push-pull outputs.\n" " gpio0.pin_cnf[21].write(|w| {\n" " w.dir().output();\n" " w.input().disconnect();\n" " w.pull().disabled();\n" " w.drive().s0s1();\n" " w.sense().disabled();\n" " w\n" " });\n" " gpio0.pin_cnf[28].write(|w| {\n" " w.dir().output();\n" " w.input().disconnect();\n" " w.pull().disabled();\n" " w.drive().s0s1();\n" " w.sense().disabled();\n" " w\n" " });\n" "\n" " // Set pin 28 low and pin 21 high to turn the LED on.\n" " gpio0.outclr.write(|w| w.pin28().clear());\n" " gpio0.outset.write(|w| w.pin21().set());\n" "\n" " loop {}\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/pacs.md:49 msgid "" "SVD (System View Description) files are XML files typically provided by " "silicon vendors which describe the memory map of the device." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/pacs.md:51 msgid "" "They are organised by peripheral, register, field and value, with names, " "descriptions, addresses and so on." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/pacs.md:53 msgid "" "SVD files are often buggy and incomplete, so there are various projects " "which patch the mistakes, add missing details, and publish the generated " "crates." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/pacs.md:55 msgid "`cortex-m-rt` provides the vector table, among other things." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/pacs.md:56 msgid "" "If you `cargo install cargo-binutils` then you can run `cargo objdump --bin " "pac -- -d --no-show-raw-insn` to see the resulting binary." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/pacs.md:61 msgid "" "```sh\n" "cargo embed --bin pac\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/hals.md:1 msgid "HAL crates" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/hals.md:3 msgid "" "[HAL crates](https://github.com/rust-embedded/awesome-embedded-rust#hal-" "implementation-crates) for many microcontrollers provide wrappers around " "various peripherals. These generally implement traits from [`embedded-hal`]" "(https://crates.io/crates/embedded-hal)." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/hals.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "extern crate panic_halt as _;\n" "\n" "use cortex_m_rt::entry;\n" "use nrf52833_hal::gpio::{p0, Level};\n" "use nrf52833_hal::pac::Peripherals;\n" "use nrf52833_hal::prelude::*;\n" "\n" "#[entry]\n" "fn main() -> ! {\n" " let p = Peripherals::take().unwrap();\n" "\n" " // Create HAL wrapper for GPIO port 0.\n" " let gpio0 = p0::Parts::new(p.P0);\n" "\n" " // Configure GPIO 0 pins 21 and 28 as push-pull outputs.\n" " let mut col1 = gpio0.p0_28.into_push_pull_output(Level::High);\n" " let mut row1 = gpio0.p0_21.into_push_pull_output(Level::Low);\n" "\n" " // Set pin 28 low and pin 21 high to turn the LED on.\n" " col1.set_low().unwrap();\n" " row1.set_high().unwrap();\n" "\n" " loop {}\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/hals.md:39 msgid "" "`set_low` and `set_high` are methods on the `embedded_hal` `OutputPin` trait." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/hals.md:40 msgid "" "HAL crates exist for many Cortex-M and RISC-V devices, including various " "STM32, GD32, nRF, NXP, MSP430, AVR and PIC microcontrollers." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/hals.md:45 msgid "" "```sh\n" "cargo embed --bin hal\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/board-support.md:1 msgid "Board support crates" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/board-support.md:3 msgid "" "Board support crates provide a further level of wrapping for a specific " "board for convenience." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/board-support.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "extern crate panic_halt as _;\n" "\n" "use cortex_m_rt::entry;\n" "use microbit::hal::prelude::*;\n" "use microbit::Board;\n" "\n" "#[entry]\n" "fn main() -> ! {\n" " let mut board = Board::take().unwrap();\n" "\n" " board.display_pins.col1.set_low().unwrap();\n" " board.display_pins.row1.set_high().unwrap();\n" "\n" " loop {}\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/board-support.md:28 msgid "" "In this case the board support crate is just providing more useful names, " "and a bit of initialisation." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/board-support.md:30 msgid "" "The crate may also include drivers for some on-board devices outside of the " "microcontroller itself." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/board-support.md:32 msgid "`microbit-v2` includes a simple driver for the LED matrix." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/board-support.md:36 msgid "" "```sh\n" "cargo embed --bin board_support\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/type-state.md:1 msgid "The type state pattern" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/type-state.md:3 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "#[entry]\n" "fn main() -> ! {\n" " let p = Peripherals::take().unwrap();\n" " let gpio0 = p0::Parts::new(p.P0);\n" "\n" " let pin: P0_01 = gpio0.p0_01;\n" "\n" " // let gpio0_01_again = gpio0.p0_01; // Error, moved.\n" " let pin_input: P0_01> = pin.into_floating_input();\n" " if pin_input.is_high().unwrap() {\n" " // ...\n" " }\n" " let mut pin_output: P0_01> = pin_input\n" " .into_open_drain_output(OpenDrainConfig::Disconnect0Standard1, " "Level::Low);\n" " pin_output.set_high().unwrap();\n" " // pin_input.is_high(); // Error, moved.\n" "\n" " let _pin2: P0_02> = gpio0\n" " .p0_02\n" " .into_open_drain_output(OpenDrainConfig::Disconnect0Standard1, " "Level::Low);\n" " let _pin3: P0_03> = gpio0.p0_03." "into_push_pull_output(Level::Low);\n" "\n" " loop {}\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/type-state.md:32 msgid "" "Pins don't implement `Copy` or `Clone`, so only one instance of each can " "exist. Once a pin is moved out of the port struct nobody else can take it." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/type-state.md:34 msgid "" "Changing the configuration of a pin consumes the old pin instance, so you " "can’t keep use the old instance afterwards." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/type-state.md:36 msgid "" "The type of a value indicates the state that it is in: e.g. in this case, " "the configuration state of a GPIO pin. This encodes the state machine into " "the type system, and ensures that you don't try to use a pin in a certain " "way without properly configuring it first. Illegal state transitions are " "caught at compile time." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/type-state.md:40 msgid "" "You can call `is_high` on an input pin and `set_high` on an output pin, but " "not vice-versa." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/type-state.md:41 msgid "Many HAL crates follow this pattern." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/embedded-hal.md:1 msgid "`embedded-hal`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/embedded-hal.md:3 msgid "" "The [`embedded-hal`](https://crates.io/crates/embedded-hal) crate provides a " "number of traits covering common microcontroller peripherals." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/embedded-hal.md:6 msgid "GPIO" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/embedded-hal.md:7 msgid "ADC" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/embedded-hal.md:8 msgid "I2C, SPI, UART, CAN" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/embedded-hal.md:9 msgid "RNG" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/embedded-hal.md:10 msgid "Timers" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/embedded-hal.md:11 msgid "Watchdogs" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/embedded-hal.md:13 msgid "" "Other crates then implement [drivers](https://github.com/rust-embedded/" "awesome-embedded-rust#driver-crates) in terms of these traits, e.g. an " "accelerometer driver might need an I2C or SPI bus implementation." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/embedded-hal.md:19 msgid "" "There are implementations for many microcontrollers, as well as other " "platforms such as Linux on Raspberry Pi." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/embedded-hal.md:21 msgid "" "There is work in progress on an `async` version of `embedded-hal`, but it " "isn't stable yet." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:1 msgid "`probe-rs`, `cargo-embed`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:3 msgid "" "[probe-rs](https://probe.rs/) is a handy toolset for embedded debugging, " "like OpenOCD but better integrated." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:6 msgid "SWD" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:6 msgid " and JTAG via CMSIS-DAP, ST-Link and J-Link probes" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:7 msgid "GDB stub and Microsoft " msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:7 msgid "DAP" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:7 msgid " server" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:8 msgid "Cargo integration" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:10 msgid "`cargo-embed` is a cargo subcommand to build and flash binaries, log " msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:11 msgid "RTT" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:11 msgid "" " output and connect GDB. It's configured by an `Embed.toml` file in your " "project directory." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:16 msgid "" "[CMSIS-DAP](https://arm-software.github.io/CMSIS_5/DAP/html/index.html) is " "an Arm standard protocol over USB for an in-circuit debugger to access the " "CoreSight Debug Access Port of various Arm Cortex processors. It's what the " "on-board debugger on the BBC micro:bit uses." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:19 msgid "" "ST-Link is a range of in-circuit debuggers from ST Microelectronics, J-Link " "is a range from SEGGER." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:21 msgid "" "The Debug Access Port is usually either a 5-pin JTAG interface or 2-pin " "Serial Wire Debug." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:22 msgid "" "probe-rs is a library which you can integrate into your own tools if you " "want to." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:23 msgid "" "The [Microsoft Debug Adapter Protocol](https://microsoft.github.io/debug-" "adapter-protocol/) lets VSCode and other IDEs debug code running on any " "supported microcontroller." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:25 msgid "cargo-embed is a binary built using the probe-rs library." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/probe-rs.md:26 msgid "" "RTT (Real Time Transfers) is a mechanism to transfer data between the debug " "host and the target through a number of ringbuffers." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/debugging.md:3 msgid "Embed.toml:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/debugging.md:5 msgid "" "```toml\n" "[default.general]\n" "chip = \"nrf52833_xxAA\"\n" "\n" "[debug.gdb]\n" "enabled = true\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/debugging.md:13 msgid "In one terminal under `src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/examples/`:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/debugging.md:15 msgid "" "```sh\n" "cargo embed --bin board_support debug\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/debugging.md:19 msgid "In another terminal in the same directory:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/debugging.md:21 msgid "" "```sh\n" "gdb-multiarch target/thumbv7em-none-eabihf/debug/board_support --eval-" "command=\"target remote :1337\"\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/debugging.md:27 msgid "In GDB, try running:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/debugging.md:29 msgid "" "```gdb\n" "b src/bin/board_support.rs:29\n" "b src/bin/board_support.rs:30\n" "b src/bin/board_support.rs:32\n" "c\n" "c\n" "c\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:1 #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:1 msgid "Other projects" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:3 msgid "[RTIC](https://rtic.rs/)" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:4 msgid "\"Real-Time Interrupt-driven Concurrency\"" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:5 msgid "" "Shared resource management, message passing, task scheduling, timer queue" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:6 msgid "[Embassy](https://embassy.dev/)" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:7 msgid "`async` executors with priorities, timers, networking, USB" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:8 msgid "[TockOS](https://www.tockos.org/documentation/getting-started)" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:9 msgid "" "Security-focused RTOS with preemptive scheduling and Memory Protection Unit " "support" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:10 msgid "[Hubris](https://hubris.oxide.computer/)" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:11 msgid "" "Microkernel RTOS from Oxide Computer Company with memory protection, " "unprivileged drivers, IPC" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:12 msgid "[Bindings for FreeRTOS](https://github.com/lobaro/FreeRTOS-rust)" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:13 msgid "" "Some platforms have `std` implementations, e.g. [esp-idf](https://esp-rs." "github.io/book/overview/using-the-standard-library.html)." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:18 msgid "RTIC can be considered either an RTOS or a concurrency framework." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:19 msgid "It doesn't include any HALs." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:20 msgid "" "It uses the Cortex-M NVIC (Nested Virtual Interrupt Controller) for " "scheduling rather than a proper kernel." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:22 msgid "Cortex-M only." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:23 msgid "" "Google uses TockOS on the Haven microcontroller for Titan security keys." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/microcontrollers/other-projects.md:24 msgid "" "FreeRTOS is mostly written in C, but there are Rust bindings for writing " "applications." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/morning.md:3 msgid "" "We will read the direction from an I2C compass, and log the readings to a " "serial port." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:3 msgid "" "We will read the direction from an I2C compass, and log the readings to a " "serial port. If you have time, try displaying it on the LEDs somehow too, or " "use the buttons somehow." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:6 msgid "Hints:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:8 msgid "" "Check the documentation for the [`lsm303agr`](https://docs.rs/lsm303agr/" "latest/lsm303agr/) and [`microbit-v2`](https://docs.rs/microbit-v2/latest/" "microbit/) crates, as well as the [micro:bit hardware](https://tech.microbit." "org/hardware/)." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:11 msgid "" "The LSM303AGR Inertial Measurement Unit is connected to the internal I2C bus." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:12 msgid "" "TWI is another name for I2C, so the I2C master peripheral is called TWIM." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:13 msgid "" "The LSM303AGR driver needs something implementing the `embedded_hal::" "blocking::i2c::WriteRead` trait. The [`microbit::hal::Twim`](https://docs.rs/" "microbit-v2/latest/microbit/hal/struct.Twim.html) struct implements this." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:17 msgid "" "You have a [`microbit::Board`](https://docs.rs/microbit-v2/latest/microbit/" "struct.Board.html) struct with fields for the various pins and peripherals." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:19 msgid "" "You can also look at the [nRF52833 datasheet](https://infocenter.nordicsemi." "com/pdf/nRF52833_PS_v1.5.pdf) if you want, but it shouldn't be necessary for " "this exercise." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:23 msgid "" "Download the [exercise template](../../comprehensive-rust-exercises.zip) and " "look in the `compass` directory for the following files." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:26 src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:19 msgid "`src/main.rs`:" msgstr "`src/main.rs`:" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:30 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "extern crate panic_halt as _;\n" "\n" "use core::fmt::Write;\n" "use cortex_m_rt::entry;\n" "use microbit::{hal::uarte::{Baudrate, Parity, Uarte}, Board};\n" "\n" "#[entry]\n" "fn main() -> ! {\n" " let board = Board::take().unwrap();\n" "\n" " // Configure serial port.\n" " let mut serial = Uarte::new(\n" " board.UARTE0,\n" " board.uart.into(),\n" " Parity::EXCLUDED,\n" " Baudrate::BAUD115200,\n" " );\n" "\n" " // Set up the I2C controller and Inertial Measurement Unit.\n" " // TODO\n" "\n" " writeln!(serial, \"Ready.\").unwrap();\n" "\n" " loop {\n" " // Read compass data and log it to the serial port.\n" " // TODO\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:64 src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:385 msgid "`Cargo.toml` (you shouldn't need to change this):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:68 msgid "" "```toml\n" "[workspace]\n" "\n" "[package]\n" "name = \"compass\"\n" "version = \"0.1.0\"\n" "edition = \"2021\"\n" "publish = false\n" "\n" "[dependencies]\n" "cortex-m-rt = \"0.7.3\"\n" "embedded-hal = \"0.2.6\"\n" "lsm303agr = \"0.2.2\"\n" "microbit-v2 = \"0.13.0\"\n" "panic-halt = \"0.2.0\"\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:85 msgid "`Embed.toml` (you shouldn't need to change this):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:89 msgid "" "```toml\n" "[default.general]\n" "chip = \"nrf52833_xxAA\"\n" "\n" "[debug.gdb]\n" "enabled = true\n" "\n" "[debug.reset]\n" "halt_afterwards = true\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:100 src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:985 msgid "`.cargo/config.toml` (you shouldn't need to change this):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:104 msgid "" "```toml\n" "[build]\n" "target = \"thumbv7em-none-eabihf\" # Cortex-M4F\n" "\n" "[target.'cfg(all(target_arch = \"arm\", target_os = \"none\"))']\n" "rustflags = [\"-C\", \"link-arg=-Tlink.x\"]\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:112 msgid "See the serial output on Linux with:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:114 msgid "" "```sh\n" "picocom --baud 115200 --imap lfcrlf /dev/ttyACM0\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:118 msgid "" "Or on Mac OS something like (the device name may be slightly different):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:120 msgid "" "```sh\n" "picocom --baud 115200 --imap lfcrlf /dev/tty.usbmodem14502\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/compass.md:124 msgid "Use Ctrl+A Ctrl+Q to quit picocom." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps.md:1 msgid "Application processors" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps.md:3 msgid "" "So far we've talked about microcontrollers, such as the Arm Cortex-M series. " "Now let's try writing something for Cortex-A. For simplicity we'll just work " "with QEMU's aarch64 ['virt'](https://qemu-project.gitlab.io/qemu/system/arm/" "virt.html) board." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps.md:9 msgid "" "Broadly speaking, microcontrollers don't have an MMU or multiple levels of " "privilege (exception levels on Arm CPUs, rings on x86), while application " "processors do." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps.md:11 msgid "" "QEMU supports emulating various different machines or board models for each " "architecture. The 'virt' board doesn't correspond to any particular real " "hardware, but is designed purely for virtual machines." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/entry-point.md:3 msgid "" "Before we can start running Rust code, we need to do some initialisation." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/entry-point.md:5 msgid "" "```armasm\n" ".section .init.entry, \"ax\"\n" ".global entry\n" "entry:\n" " /*\n" " * Load and apply the memory management configuration, ready to enable " "MMU and\n" " * caches.\n" " */\n" " adrp x30, idmap\n" " msr ttbr0_el1, x30\n" "\n" " mov_i x30, .Lmairval\n" " msr mair_el1, x30\n" "\n" " mov_i x30, .Ltcrval\n" " /* Copy the supported PA range into TCR_EL1.IPS. */\n" " mrs x29, id_aa64mmfr0_el1\n" " bfi x30, x29, #32, #4\n" "\n" " msr tcr_el1, x30\n" "\n" " mov_i x30, .Lsctlrval\n" "\n" " /*\n" " * Ensure everything before this point has completed, then invalidate " "any\n" " * potentially stale local TLB entries before they start being used.\n" " */\n" " isb\n" " tlbi vmalle1\n" " ic iallu\n" " dsb nsh\n" " isb\n" "\n" " /*\n" " * Configure sctlr_el1 to enable MMU and cache and don't proceed until " "this\n" " * has completed.\n" " */\n" " msr sctlr_el1, x30\n" " isb\n" "\n" " /* Disable trapping floating point access in EL1. */\n" " mrs x30, cpacr_el1\n" " orr x30, x30, #(0x3 << 20)\n" " msr cpacr_el1, x30\n" " isb\n" "\n" " /* Zero out the bss section. */\n" " adr_l x29, bss_begin\n" " adr_l x30, bss_end\n" "0: cmp x29, x30\n" " b.hs 1f\n" " stp xzr, xzr, [x29], #16\n" " b 0b\n" "\n" "1: /* Prepare the stack. */\n" " adr_l x30, boot_stack_end\n" " mov sp, x30\n" "\n" " /* Set up exception vector. */\n" " adr x30, vector_table_el1\n" " msr vbar_el1, x30\n" "\n" " /* Call into Rust code. */\n" " bl main\n" "\n" " /* Loop forever waiting for interrupts. */\n" "2: wfi\n" " b 2b\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/entry-point.md:77 msgid "" "This is the same as it would be for C: initialising the processor state, " "zeroing the BSS, and setting up the stack pointer." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/entry-point.md:79 msgid "" "The BSS (block starting symbol, for historical reasons) is the part of the " "object file which containing statically allocated variables which are " "initialised to zero. They are omitted from the image, to avoid wasting space " "on zeroes. The compiler assumes that the loader will take care of zeroing " "them." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/entry-point.md:83 msgid "" "The BSS may already be zeroed, depending on how memory is initialised and " "the image is loaded, but we zero it to be sure." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/entry-point.md:85 msgid "" "We need to enable the MMU and cache before reading or writing any memory. If " "we don't:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/entry-point.md:86 msgid "" "Unaligned accesses will fault. We build the Rust code for the `aarch64-" "unknown-none` target which sets `+strict-align` to prevent the compiler " "generating unaligned accesses, so it should be fine in this case, but this " "is not necessarily the case in general." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/entry-point.md:89 msgid "" "If it were running in a VM, this can lead to cache coherency issues. The " "problem is that the VM is accessing memory directly with the cache disabled, " "while the host has cachable aliases to the same memory. Even if the host " "doesn't explicitly access the memory, speculative accesses can lead to cache " "fills, and then changes from one or the other will get lost when the cache " "is cleaned or the VM enables the cache. (Cache is keyed by physical address, " "not VA or IPA.)" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/entry-point.md:94 msgid "" "For simplicity, we just use a hardcoded pagetable (see `idmap.S`) which " "identity maps the first 1 GiB of address space for devices, the next 1 GiB " "for DRAM, and another 1 GiB higher up for more devices. This matches the " "memory layout that QEMU uses." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/entry-point.md:97 msgid "" "We also set up the exception vector (`vbar_el1`), which we'll see more about " "later." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/entry-point.md:98 msgid "" "All examples this afternoon assume we will be running at exception level 1 " "(EL1). If you need to run at a different exception level you'll need to " "modify `entry.S` accordingly." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/inline-assembly.md:1 msgid "Inline assembly" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/inline-assembly.md:3 msgid "" "Sometimes we need to use assembly to do things that aren't possible with " "Rust code. For example, to make an " msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/inline-assembly.md:4 msgid "HVC" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/inline-assembly.md:4 msgid " to tell the firmware to power off the system:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/inline-assembly.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "use core::arch::asm;\n" "use core::panic::PanicInfo;\n" "\n" "mod exceptions;\n" "\n" "const PSCI_SYSTEM_OFF: u32 = 0x84000008;\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn main(_x0: u64, _x1: u64, _x2: u64, _x3: u64) {\n" " // Safe because this only uses the declared registers and doesn't do\n" " // anything with memory.\n" " unsafe {\n" " asm!(\"hvc #0\",\n" " inout(\"w0\") PSCI_SYSTEM_OFF => _,\n" " inout(\"w1\") 0 => _,\n" " inout(\"w2\") 0 => _,\n" " inout(\"w3\") 0 => _,\n" " inout(\"w4\") 0 => _,\n" " inout(\"w5\") 0 => _,\n" " inout(\"w6\") 0 => _,\n" " inout(\"w7\") 0 => _,\n" " options(nomem, nostack)\n" " );\n" " }\n" "\n" " loop {}\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/inline-assembly.md:39 msgid "" "(If you actually want to do this, use the [`smccc`](https://crates.io/crates/" "smccc) crate which has wrappers for all these functions.)" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/inline-assembly.md:43 msgid "" "PSCI is the Arm Power State Coordination Interface, a standard set of " "functions to manage system and CPU power states, among other things. It is " "implemented by EL3 firmware and hypervisors on many systems." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/inline-assembly.md:46 msgid "" "The `0 => _` syntax means initialise the register to 0 before running the " "inline assembly code, and ignore its contents afterwards. We need to use " "`inout` rather than `in` because the call could potentially clobber the " "contents of the registers." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/inline-assembly.md:49 msgid "" "This `main` function needs to be `#[no_mangle]` and `extern \"C\"` because " "it is called from our entry point in `entry.S`." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/inline-assembly.md:51 msgid "" "`_x0`–`_x3` are the values of registers `x0`–`x3`, which are conventionally " "used by the bootloader to pass things like a pointer to the device tree. " "According to the standard aarch64 calling convention (which is what `extern " "\"C\"` specifies to use), registers `x0`–`x7` are used for the first 8 " "arguments passed to a function, so `entry.S` doesn't need to do anything " "special except make sure it doesn't change these registers." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/inline-assembly.md:56 msgid "" "Run the example in QEMU with `make qemu_psci` under `src/bare-metal/aps/" "examples`." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/mmio.md:1 msgid "Volatile memory access for MMIO" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/mmio.md:3 msgid "Use `pointer::read_volatile` and `pointer::write_volatile`." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/mmio.md:4 msgid "Never hold a reference." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/mmio.md:5 msgid "" "`addr_of!` lets you get fields of structs without creating an intermediate " "reference." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/mmio.md:9 msgid "" "Volatile access: read or write operations may have side-effects, so prevent " "the compiler or hardware from reordering, duplicating or eliding them." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/mmio.md:11 msgid "" "Usually if you write and then read, e.g. via a mutable reference, the " "compiler may assume that the value read is the same as the value just " "written, and not bother actually reading memory." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/mmio.md:13 msgid "" "Some existing crates for volatile access to hardware do hold references, but " "this is unsound. Whenever a reference exist, the compiler may choose to " "dereference it." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/mmio.md:15 msgid "" "Use the `addr_of!` macro to get struct field pointers from a pointer to the " "struct." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/uart.md:1 msgid "Let's write a UART driver" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/uart.md:3 msgid "" "The QEMU 'virt' machine has a [PL011](https://developer.arm.com/" "documentation/ddi0183/g) UART, so let's write a driver for that." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/uart.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "const FLAG_REGISTER_OFFSET: usize = 0x18;\n" "const FR_BUSY: u8 = 1 << 3;\n" "const FR_TXFF: u8 = 1 << 5;\n" "\n" "/// Minimal driver for a PL011 UART.\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "pub struct Uart {\n" " base_address: *mut u8,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Uart {\n" " /// Constructs a new instance of the UART driver for a PL011 device at " "the\n" " /// given base address.\n" " ///\n" " /// # Safety\n" " ///\n" " /// The given base address must point to the 8 MMIO control registers of " "a\n" " /// PL011 device, which must be mapped into the address space of the " "process\n" " /// as device memory and not have any other aliases.\n" " pub unsafe fn new(base_address: *mut u8) -> Self {\n" " Self { base_address }\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Writes a single byte to the UART.\n" " pub fn write_byte(&self, byte: u8) {\n" " // Wait until there is room in the TX buffer.\n" " while self.read_flag_register() & FR_TXFF != 0 {}\n" "\n" " // Safe because we know that the base address points to the control\n" " // registers of a PL011 device which is appropriately mapped.\n" " unsafe {\n" " // Write to the TX buffer.\n" " self.base_address.write_volatile(byte);\n" " }\n" "\n" " // Wait until the UART is no longer busy.\n" " while self.read_flag_register() & FR_BUSY != 0 {}\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn read_flag_register(&self) -> u8 {\n" " // Safe because we know that the base address points to the control\n" " // registers of a PL011 device which is appropriately mapped.\n" " unsafe { self.base_address.add(FLAG_REGISTER_OFFSET)." "read_volatile() }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/uart.md:55 msgid "" "Note that `Uart::new` is unsafe while the other methods are safe. This is " "because as long as the caller of `Uart::new` guarantees that its safety " "requirements are met (i.e. that there is only ever one instance of the " "driver for a given UART, and nothing else aliasing its address space), then " "it is always safe to call `write_byte` later because we can assume the " "necessary preconditions." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/uart.md:60 msgid "" "We could have done it the other way around (making `new` safe but " "`write_byte` unsafe), but that would be much less convenient to use as every " "place that calls `write_byte` would need to reason about the safety" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/uart.md:63 msgid "" "This is a common pattern for writing safe wrappers of unsafe code: moving " "the burden of proof for soundness from a large number of places to a smaller " "number of places." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/uart/traits.md:1 msgid "More traits" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/uart/traits.md:3 msgid "" "We derived the `Debug` trait. It would be useful to implement a few more " "traits too." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/uart/traits.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use core::fmt::{self, Write};\n" "\n" "impl Write for Uart {\n" " fn write_str(&mut self, s: &str) -> fmt::Result {\n" " for c in s.as_bytes() {\n" " self.write_byte(*c);\n" " }\n" " Ok(())\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// Safe because it just contains a pointer to device memory, which can be\n" "// accessed from any context.\n" "unsafe impl Send for Uart {}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/uart/traits.md:24 msgid "" "Implementing `Write` lets us use the `write!` and `writeln!` macros with our " "`Uart` type." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/uart/traits.md:25 msgid "" "Run the example in QEMU with `make qemu_minimal` under `src/bare-metal/aps/" "examples`." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:1 msgid "A better UART driver" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:3 msgid "" "The PL011 actually has [a bunch more registers](https://developer.arm.com/" "documentation/ddi0183/g/programmers-model/summary-of-registers), and adding " "offsets to construct pointers to access them is error-prone and hard to " "read. Plus, some of them are bit fields which would be nice to access in a " "structured way." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:7 msgid "Offset" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:7 msgid "Register name" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:7 msgid "Width" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:9 msgid "0x00" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:9 msgid "DR" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:9 msgid "12" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:10 msgid "0x04" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:10 msgid "RSR" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:10 msgid "4" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:11 msgid "0x18" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:11 msgid "FR" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:11 msgid "9" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:12 msgid "0x20" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:12 msgid "ILPR" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:12 src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:15 msgid "8" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:13 msgid "0x24" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:13 msgid "IBRD" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:13 src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:16 msgid "16" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:14 msgid "0x28" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:14 msgid "FBRD" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:14 src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:17 msgid "6" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:15 msgid "0x2c" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:15 msgid "LCR_H" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:16 msgid "0x30" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:16 msgid "CR" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:17 msgid "0x34" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:17 msgid "IFLS" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:18 msgid "0x38" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:18 msgid "IMSC" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:18 src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:19 #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:20 src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:21 msgid "11" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:19 msgid "0x3c" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:19 msgid "RIS" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:20 msgid "0x40" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:20 msgid "MIS" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:21 msgid "0x44" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:21 msgid "ICR" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:22 msgid "0x48" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:22 msgid "DMACR" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:22 msgid "3" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart.md:26 msgid "There are also some ID registers which have been omitted for brevity." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/bitflags.md:3 msgid "" "The [`bitflags`](https://crates.io/crates/bitflags) crate is useful for " "working with bitflags." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/bitflags.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use bitflags::bitflags;\n" "\n" "bitflags! {\n" " /// Flags from the UART flag register.\n" " #[repr(transparent)]\n" " #[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]\n" " struct Flags: u16 {\n" " /// Clear to send.\n" " const CTS = 1 << 0;\n" " /// Data set ready.\n" " const DSR = 1 << 1;\n" " /// Data carrier detect.\n" " const DCD = 1 << 2;\n" " /// UART busy transmitting data.\n" " const BUSY = 1 << 3;\n" " /// Receive FIFO is empty.\n" " const RXFE = 1 << 4;\n" " /// Transmit FIFO is full.\n" " const TXFF = 1 << 5;\n" " /// Receive FIFO is full.\n" " const RXFF = 1 << 6;\n" " /// Transmit FIFO is empty.\n" " const TXFE = 1 << 7;\n" " /// Ring indicator.\n" " const RI = 1 << 8;\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/bitflags.md:37 msgid "" "The `bitflags!` macro creates a newtype something like `Flags(u16)`, along " "with a bunch of method implementations to get and set flags." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/registers.md:1 msgid "Multiple registers" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/registers.md:3 msgid "" "We can use a struct to represent the memory layout of the UART's registers." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/registers.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "#[repr(C, align(4))]\n" "struct Registers {\n" " dr: u16,\n" " _reserved0: [u8; 2],\n" " rsr: ReceiveStatus,\n" " _reserved1: [u8; 19],\n" " fr: Flags,\n" " _reserved2: [u8; 6],\n" " ilpr: u8,\n" " _reserved3: [u8; 3],\n" " ibrd: u16,\n" " _reserved4: [u8; 2],\n" " fbrd: u8,\n" " _reserved5: [u8; 3],\n" " lcr_h: u8,\n" " _reserved6: [u8; 3],\n" " cr: u16,\n" " _reserved7: [u8; 3],\n" " ifls: u8,\n" " _reserved8: [u8; 3],\n" " imsc: u16,\n" " _reserved9: [u8; 2],\n" " ris: u16,\n" " _reserved10: [u8; 2],\n" " mis: u16,\n" " _reserved11: [u8; 2],\n" " icr: u16,\n" " _reserved12: [u8; 2],\n" " dmacr: u8,\n" " _reserved13: [u8; 3],\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/registers.md:41 msgid "" "[`#[repr(C)]`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/type-layout.html#the-c-" "representation) tells the compiler to lay the struct fields out in order, " "following the same rules as C. This is necessary for our struct to have a " "predictable layout, as default Rust representation allows the compiler to " "(among other things) reorder fields however it sees fit." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/driver.md:3 msgid "Now let's use the new `Registers` struct in our driver." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/driver.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "/// Driver for a PL011 UART.\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "pub struct Uart {\n" " registers: *mut Registers,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Uart {\n" " /// Constructs a new instance of the UART driver for a PL011 device at " "the\n" " /// given base address.\n" " ///\n" " /// # Safety\n" " ///\n" " /// The given base address must point to the 8 MMIO control registers of " "a\n" " /// PL011 device, which must be mapped into the address space of the " "process\n" " /// as device memory and not have any other aliases.\n" " pub unsafe fn new(base_address: *mut u32) -> Self {\n" " Self {\n" " registers: base_address as *mut Registers,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Writes a single byte to the UART.\n" " pub fn write_byte(&self, byte: u8) {\n" " // Wait until there is room in the TX buffer.\n" " while self.read_flag_register().contains(Flags::TXFF) {}\n" "\n" " // Safe because we know that self.registers points to the control\n" " // registers of a PL011 device which is appropriately mapped.\n" " unsafe {\n" " // Write to the TX buffer.\n" " addr_of_mut!((*self.registers).dr).write_volatile(byte.into());\n" " }\n" "\n" " // Wait until the UART is no longer busy.\n" " while self.read_flag_register().contains(Flags::BUSY) {}\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Reads and returns a pending byte, or `None` if nothing has been " "received.\n" " pub fn read_byte(&self) -> Option {\n" " if self.read_flag_register().contains(Flags::RXFE) {\n" " None\n" " } else {\n" " let data = unsafe { addr_of!((*self.registers).dr)." "read_volatile() };\n" " // TODO: Check for error conditions in bits 8-11.\n" " Some(data as u8)\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn read_flag_register(&self) -> Flags {\n" " // Safe because we know that self.registers points to the control\n" " // registers of a PL011 device which is appropriately mapped.\n" " unsafe { addr_of!((*self.registers).fr).read_volatile() }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/driver.md:64 msgid "" "Note the use of `addr_of!` / `addr_of_mut!` to get pointers to individual " "fields without creating an intermediate reference, which would be unsound." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/using.md:1 #: src/bare-metal/aps/logging/using.md:1 msgid "Using it" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/using.md:3 msgid "" "Let's write a small program using our driver to write to the serial console, " "and echo incoming bytes." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/using.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "mod exceptions;\n" "mod pl011;\n" "\n" "use crate::pl011::Uart;\n" "use core::fmt::Write;\n" "use core::panic::PanicInfo;\n" "use log::error;\n" "use smccc::psci::system_off;\n" "use smccc::Hvc;\n" "\n" "/// Base address of the primary PL011 UART.\n" "const PL011_BASE_ADDRESS: *mut u32 = 0x900_0000 as _;\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn main(x0: u64, x1: u64, x2: u64, x3: u64) {\n" " // Safe because `PL011_BASE_ADDRESS` is the base address of a PL011 " "device,\n" " // and nothing else accesses that address range.\n" " let mut uart = unsafe { Uart::new(PL011_BASE_ADDRESS) };\n" "\n" " writeln!(uart, \"main({x0:#x}, {x1:#x}, {x2:#x}, {x3:#x})\").unwrap();\n" "\n" " loop {\n" " if let Some(byte) = uart.read_byte() {\n" " uart.write_byte(byte);\n" " match byte {\n" " b'\\r' => {\n" " uart.write_byte(b'\\n');\n" " }\n" " b'q' => break,\n" " _ => {}\n" " }\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " writeln!(uart, \"Bye!\").unwrap();\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/using.md:51 msgid "" "As in the [inline assembly](../inline-assembly.md) example, this `main` " "function is called from our entry point code in `entry.S`. See the speaker " "notes there for details." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/better-uart/using.md:53 msgid "" "Run the example in QEMU with `make qemu` under `src/bare-metal/aps/examples`." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/logging.md:3 msgid "" "It would be nice to be able to use the logging macros from the [`log`]" "(https://crates.io/crates/log) crate. We can do this by implementing the " "`Log` trait." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/logging.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use crate::pl011::Uart;\n" "use core::fmt::Write;\n" "use log::{LevelFilter, Log, Metadata, Record, SetLoggerError};\n" "use spin::mutex::SpinMutex;\n" "\n" "static LOGGER: Logger = Logger {\n" " uart: SpinMutex::new(None),\n" "};\n" "\n" "struct Logger {\n" " uart: SpinMutex>,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Log for Logger {\n" " fn enabled(&self, _metadata: &Metadata) -> bool {\n" " true\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn log(&self, record: &Record) {\n" " writeln!(\n" " self.uart.lock().as_mut().unwrap(),\n" " \"[{}] {}\",\n" " record.level(),\n" " record.args()\n" " )\n" " .unwrap();\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn flush(&self) {}\n" "}\n" "\n" "/// Initialises UART logger.\n" "pub fn init(uart: Uart, max_level: LevelFilter) -> Result<(), " "SetLoggerError> {\n" " LOGGER.uart.lock().replace(uart);\n" "\n" " log::set_logger(&LOGGER)?;\n" " log::set_max_level(max_level);\n" " Ok(())\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/logging.md:50 msgid "" "The unwrap in `log` is safe because we initialise `LOGGER` before calling " "`set_logger`." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/logging/using.md:3 msgid "We need to initialise the logger before we use it." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/logging/using.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "mod exceptions;\n" "mod logger;\n" "mod pl011;\n" "\n" "use crate::pl011::Uart;\n" "use core::panic::PanicInfo;\n" "use log::{error, info, LevelFilter};\n" "use smccc::psci::system_off;\n" "use smccc::Hvc;\n" "\n" "/// Base address of the primary PL011 UART.\n" "const PL011_BASE_ADDRESS: *mut u32 = 0x900_0000 as _;\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn main(x0: u64, x1: u64, x2: u64, x3: u64) {\n" " // Safe because `PL011_BASE_ADDRESS` is the base address of a PL011 " "device,\n" " // and nothing else accesses that address range.\n" " let uart = unsafe { Uart::new(PL011_BASE_ADDRESS) };\n" " logger::init(uart, LevelFilter::Trace).unwrap();\n" "\n" " info!(\"main({x0:#x}, {x1:#x}, {x2:#x}, {x3:#x})\");\n" "\n" " assert_eq!(x1, 42);\n" "\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[panic_handler]\n" "fn panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {\n" " error!(\"{info}\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" " loop {}\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/logging/using.md:46 msgid "Note that our panic handler can now log details of panics." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/logging/using.md:47 msgid "" "Run the example in QEMU with `make qemu_logger` under `src/bare-metal/aps/" "examples`." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/exceptions.md:3 msgid "" "AArch64 defines an exception vector table with 16 entries, for 4 types of " "exceptions (synchronous, IRQ, FIQ, SError) from 4 states (current EL with " "SP0, current EL with SPx, lower EL using AArch64, lower EL using AArch32). " "We implement this in assembly to save volatile registers to the stack before " "calling into Rust code:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/exceptions.md:8 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use log::error;\n" "use smccc::psci::system_off;\n" "use smccc::Hvc;\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn sync_exception_current(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"sync_exception_current\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn irq_current(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"irq_current\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn fiq_current(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"fiq_current\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn serr_current(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"serr_current\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn sync_lower(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"sync_lower\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn irq_lower(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"irq_lower\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn fiq_lower(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"fiq_lower\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn serr_lower(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"serr_lower\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/exceptions.md:64 msgid "EL is exception level; all our examples this afternoon run in EL1." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/exceptions.md:65 msgid "" "For simplicity we aren't distinguishing between SP0 and SPx for the current " "EL exceptions, or between AArch32 and AArch64 for the lower EL exceptions." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/exceptions.md:67 msgid "" "For this example we just log the exception and power down, as we don't " "expect any of them to actually happen." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/exceptions.md:69 msgid "" "We can think of exception handlers and our main execution context more or " "less like different threads. [`Send` and `Sync`](../../concurrency/send-sync." "md) will control what we can share between them, just like with threads. For " "example, if we want to share some value between exception handlers and the " "rest of the program, and it's `Send` but not `Sync`, then we'll need to wrap " "it in something like a `Mutex` and put it in a static." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:3 msgid "[oreboot](https://github.com/oreboot/oreboot)" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:4 msgid "\"coreboot without the C\"" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:5 msgid "Supports x86, aarch64 and RISC-V." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:6 msgid "Relies on LinuxBoot rather than having many drivers itself." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:7 msgid "" "[Rust RaspberryPi OS tutorial](https://github.com/rust-embedded/rust-" "raspberrypi-OS-tutorials)" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:8 msgid "" "Initialisation, UART driver, simple bootloader, JTAG, exception levels, " "exception handling, page tables" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:10 msgid "" "Some dodginess around cache maintenance and initialisation in Rust, not " "necessarily a good example to copy for production code." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:12 msgid "[`cargo-call-stack`](https://crates.io/crates/cargo-call-stack)" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:13 msgid "Static analysis to determine maximum stack usage." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:17 msgid "" "The RaspberryPi OS tutorial runs Rust code before the MMU and caches are " "enabled. This will read and write memory (e.g. the stack). However:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:19 msgid "" "Without the MMU and cache, unaligned accesses will fault. It builds with " "`aarch64-unknown-none` which sets `+strict-align` to prevent the compiler " "generating unaligned accesses so it should be alright, but this is not " "necessarily the case in general." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/aps/other-projects.md:22 msgid "" "If it were running in a VM, this can lead to cache coherency issues. The " "problem is that the VM is accessing memory directly with the cache disabled, " "while the host has cachable aliases to the same memory. Even if the host " "doesn't explicitly access the memory, speculative accesses can lead to cache " "fills, and then changes from one or the other will get lost. Again this is " "alright in this particular case (running directly on the hardware with no " "hypervisor), but isn't a good pattern in general." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates.md:3 msgid "" "We'll go over a few crates which solve some common problems in bare-metal " "programming." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/zerocopy.md:1 msgid "`zerocopy`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/zerocopy.md:3 msgid "" "The [`zerocopy`](https://docs.rs/zerocopy/) crate (from Fuchsia) provides " "traits and macros for safely converting between byte sequences and other " "types." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/zerocopy.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use zerocopy::AsBytes;\n" "\n" "#[repr(u32)]\n" "#[derive(AsBytes, Debug, Default)]\n" "enum RequestType {\n" " #[default]\n" " In = 0,\n" " Out = 1,\n" " Flush = 4,\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[repr(C)]\n" "#[derive(AsBytes, Debug, Default)]\n" "struct VirtioBlockRequest {\n" " request_type: RequestType,\n" " reserved: u32,\n" " sector: u64,\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let request = VirtioBlockRequest {\n" " request_type: RequestType::Flush,\n" " sector: 42,\n" " ..Default::default()\n" " };\n" "\n" " assert_eq!(\n" " request.as_bytes(),\n" " &[4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 42, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]\n" " );\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/zerocopy.md:40 msgid "" "This is not suitable for MMIO (as it doesn't use volatile reads and writes), " "but can be useful for working with structures shared with hardware e.g. by " "DMA, or sent over some external interface." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/zerocopy.md:45 msgid "" "`FromBytes` can be implemented for types for which any byte pattern is " "valid, and so can safely be converted from an untrusted sequence of bytes." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/zerocopy.md:47 msgid "" "Attempting to derive `FromBytes` for these types would fail, because " "`RequestType` doesn't use all possible u32 values as discriminants, so not " "all byte patterns are valid." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/zerocopy.md:49 msgid "" "`zerocopy::byteorder` has types for byte-order aware numeric primitives." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/zerocopy.md:50 msgid "" "Run the example with `cargo run` under `src/bare-metal/useful-crates/" "zerocopy-example/`. (It won't run in the Playground because of the crate " "dependency.)" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/aarch64-paging.md:1 msgid "`aarch64-paging`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/aarch64-paging.md:3 msgid "" "The [`aarch64-paging`](https://crates.io/crates/aarch64-paging) crate lets " "you create page tables according to the AArch64 Virtual Memory System " "Architecture." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/aarch64-paging.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use aarch64_paging::{\n" " idmap::IdMap,\n" " paging::{Attributes, MemoryRegion},\n" "};\n" "\n" "const ASID: usize = 1;\n" "const ROOT_LEVEL: usize = 1;\n" "\n" "// Create a new page table with identity mapping.\n" "let mut idmap = IdMap::new(ASID, ROOT_LEVEL);\n" "// Map a 2 MiB region of memory as read-only.\n" "idmap.map_range(\n" " &MemoryRegion::new(0x80200000, 0x80400000),\n" " Attributes::NORMAL | Attributes::NON_GLOBAL | Attributes::READ_ONLY,\n" ").unwrap();\n" "// Set `TTBR0_EL1` to activate the page table.\n" "idmap.activate();\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/aarch64-paging.md:28 msgid "" "For now it only supports EL1, but support for other exception levels should " "be straightforward to add." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/aarch64-paging.md:30 msgid "" "This is used in Android for the [Protected VM Firmware](https://cs.android." "com/android/platform/superproject/+/master:packages/modules/Virtualization/" "pvmfw/)." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/aarch64-paging.md:31 msgid "" "There's no easy way to run this example, as it needs to run on real hardware " "or under QEMU." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/buddy_system_allocator.md:1 msgid "`buddy_system_allocator`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/buddy_system_allocator.md:3 msgid "" "[`buddy_system_allocator`](https://crates.io/crates/buddy_system_allocator) " "is a third-party crate implementing a basic buddy system allocator. It can " "be used both for [`LockedHeap`](https://docs.rs/buddy_system_allocator/0.9.0/" "buddy_system_allocator/struct.LockedHeap.html) implementing [`GlobalAlloc`]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/core/alloc/trait.GlobalAlloc.html) so you can use " "the standard `alloc` crate (as we saw [before](../alloc.md)), or for " "allocating other address space. For example, we might want to allocate MMIO " "space for PCI BARs:" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/buddy_system_allocator.md:8 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use buddy_system_allocator::FrameAllocator;\n" "use core::alloc::Layout;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut allocator = FrameAllocator::<32>::new();\n" " allocator.add_frame(0x200_0000, 0x400_0000);\n" "\n" " let layout = Layout::from_size_align(0x100, 0x100).unwrap();\n" " let bar = allocator\n" " .alloc_aligned(layout)\n" " .expect(\"Failed to allocate 0x100 byte MMIO region\");\n" " println!(\"Allocated 0x100 byte MMIO region at {:#x}\", bar);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/buddy_system_allocator.md:26 msgid "PCI BARs always have alignment equal to their size." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/buddy_system_allocator.md:27 msgid "" "Run the example with `cargo run` under `src/bare-metal/useful-crates/" "allocator-example/`. (It won't run in the Playground because of the crate " "dependency.)" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/tinyvec.md:1 msgid "`tinyvec`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/tinyvec.md:3 msgid "" "Sometimes you want something which can be resized like a `Vec`, but without " "heap allocation. [`tinyvec`](https://crates.io/crates/tinyvec) provides " "this: a vector backed by an array or slice, which could be statically " "allocated or on the stack, which keeps track of how many elements are used " "and panics if you try to use more than are allocated." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/tinyvec.md:8 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use tinyvec::{array_vec, ArrayVec};\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut numbers: ArrayVec<[u32; 5]> = array_vec!(42, 66);\n" " println!(\"{numbers:?}\");\n" " numbers.push(7);\n" " println!(\"{numbers:?}\");\n" " numbers.remove(1);\n" " println!(\"{numbers:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/tinyvec.md:23 msgid "" "`tinyvec` requires that the element type implement `Default` for " "initialisation." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/tinyvec.md:24 msgid "" "The Rust Playground includes `tinyvec`, so this example will run fine inline." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/spin.md:1 msgid "`spin`" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/spin.md:3 msgid "" "`std::sync::Mutex` and the other synchronisation primitives from `std::sync` " "are not available in `core` or `alloc`. How can we manage synchronisation or " "interior mutability, such as for sharing state between different CPUs?" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/spin.md:7 msgid "" "The [`spin`](https://crates.io/crates/spin) crate provides spinlock-based " "equivalents of many of these primitives." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/spin.md:9 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use spin::mutex::SpinMutex;\n" "\n" "static counter: SpinMutex = SpinMutex::new(0);\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " println!(\"count: {}\", counter.lock());\n" " *counter.lock() += 2;\n" " println!(\"count: {}\", counter.lock());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/spin.md:23 msgid "Be careful to avoid deadlock if you take locks in interrupt handlers." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/spin.md:24 msgid "" "`spin` also has a ticket lock mutex implementation; equivalents of `RwLock`, " "`Barrier` and `Once` from `std::sync`; and `Lazy` for lazy initialisation." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/spin.md:26 msgid "" "The [`once_cell`](https://crates.io/crates/once_cell) crate also has some " "useful types for late initialisation with a slightly different approach to " "`spin::once::Once`." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/useful-crates/spin.md:28 msgid "" "The Rust Playground includes `spin`, so this example will run fine inline." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/android.md:3 msgid "" "To build a bare-metal Rust binary in AOSP, you need to use a " "`rust_ffi_static` Soong rule to build your Rust code, then a `cc_binary` " "with a linker script to produce the binary itself, and then a `raw_binary` " "to convert the ELF to a raw binary ready to be run." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/android.md:7 msgid "" "```soong\n" "rust_ffi_static {\n" " name: \"libvmbase_example\",\n" " defaults: [\"vmbase_ffi_defaults\"],\n" " crate_name: \"vmbase_example\",\n" " srcs: [\"src/main.rs\"],\n" " rustlibs: [\n" " \"libvmbase\",\n" " ],\n" "}\n" "\n" "cc_binary {\n" " name: \"vmbase_example\",\n" " defaults: [\"vmbase_elf_defaults\"],\n" " srcs: [\n" " \"idmap.S\",\n" " ],\n" " static_libs: [\n" " \"libvmbase_example\",\n" " ],\n" " linker_scripts: [\n" " \"image.ld\",\n" " \":vmbase_sections\",\n" " ],\n" "}\n" "\n" "raw_binary {\n" " name: \"vmbase_example_bin\",\n" " stem: \"vmbase_example.bin\",\n" " src: \":vmbase_example\",\n" " enabled: false,\n" " target: {\n" " android_arm64: {\n" " enabled: true,\n" " },\n" " },\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/android/vmbase.md:3 msgid "" "For VMs running under crosvm on aarch64, the [vmbase](https://android." "googlesource.com/platform/packages/modules/Virtualization/+/refs/heads/" "master/vmbase/) library provides a linker script and useful defaults for the " "build rules, along with an entry point, UART console logging and more." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/android/vmbase.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "use vmbase::{main, println};\n" "\n" "main!(main);\n" "\n" "pub fn main(arg0: u64, arg1: u64, arg2: u64, arg3: u64) {\n" " println!(\"Hello world\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/android/vmbase.md:21 msgid "" "The `main!` macro marks your main function, to be called from the `vmbase` " "entry point." msgstr "" #: src/bare-metal/android/vmbase.md:22 msgid "" "The `vmbase` entry point handles console initialisation, and issues a " "PSCI_SYSTEM_OFF to shutdown the VM if your main function returns." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/afternoon.md:3 msgid "We will write a driver for the PL031 real-time clock device." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:1 #: src/exercises/bare-metal/solutions-afternoon.md:3 msgid "RTC driver" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:3 msgid "" "The QEMU aarch64 virt machine has a [PL031](https://developer.arm.com/" "documentation/ddi0224/c) real-time clock at 0x9010000. For this exercise, " "you should write a driver for it." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:6 msgid "" "Use it to print the current time to the serial console. You can use the " "[`chrono`](https://crates.io/crates/chrono) crate for date/time formatting." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:8 msgid "" "Use the match register and raw interrupt status to busy-wait until a given " "time, e.g. 3 seconds in the future. (Call [`core::hint::spin_loop`](https://" "doc.rust-lang.org/core/hint/fn.spin_loop.html) inside the loop.)" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:10 msgid "" "_Extension if you have time:_ Enable and handle the interrupt generated by " "the RTC match. You can use the driver provided in the [`arm-gic`](https://" "docs.rs/arm-gic/) crate to configure the Arm Generic Interrupt Controller." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:12 msgid "Use the RTC interrupt, which is wired to the GIC as `IntId::spi(2)`." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:13 msgid "" "Once the interrupt is enabled, you can put the core to sleep via `arm_gic::" "wfi()`, which will cause the core to sleep until it receives an interrupt." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:16 msgid "" "Download the [exercise template](../../comprehensive-rust-exercises.zip) and " "look in the `rtc` directory for the following files." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:23 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "mod exceptions;\n" "mod logger;\n" "mod pl011;\n" "\n" "use crate::pl011::Uart;\n" "use arm_gic::gicv3::GicV3;\n" "use core::panic::PanicInfo;\n" "use log::{error, info, trace, LevelFilter};\n" "use smccc::psci::system_off;\n" "use smccc::Hvc;\n" "\n" "/// Base addresses of the GICv3.\n" "const GICD_BASE_ADDRESS: *mut u64 = 0x800_0000 as _;\n" "const GICR_BASE_ADDRESS: *mut u64 = 0x80A_0000 as _;\n" "\n" "/// Base address of the primary PL011 UART.\n" "const PL011_BASE_ADDRESS: *mut u32 = 0x900_0000 as _;\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn main(x0: u64, x1: u64, x2: u64, x3: u64) {\n" " // Safe because `PL011_BASE_ADDRESS` is the base address of a PL011 " "device,\n" " // and nothing else accesses that address range.\n" " let uart = unsafe { Uart::new(PL011_BASE_ADDRESS) };\n" " logger::init(uart, LevelFilter::Trace).unwrap();\n" "\n" " info!(\"main({:#x}, {:#x}, {:#x}, {:#x})\", x0, x1, x2, x3);\n" "\n" " // Safe because `GICD_BASE_ADDRESS` and `GICR_BASE_ADDRESS` are the " "base\n" " // addresses of a GICv3 distributor and redistributor respectively, and\n" " // nothing else accesses those address ranges.\n" " let mut gic = unsafe { GicV3::new(GICD_BASE_ADDRESS, " "GICR_BASE_ADDRESS) };\n" " gic.setup();\n" "\n" " // TODO: Create instance of RTC driver and print current time.\n" "\n" " // TODO: Wait for 3 seconds.\n" "\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[panic_handler]\n" "fn panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {\n" " error!(\"{info}\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" " loop {}\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:75 msgid "" "`src/exceptions.rs` (you should only need to change this for the 3rd part of " "the exercise):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:79 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "// Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "use arm_gic::gicv3::GicV3;\n" "use log::{error, info, trace};\n" "use smccc::psci::system_off;\n" "use smccc::Hvc;\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn sync_exception_current(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"sync_exception_current\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn irq_current(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " trace!(\"irq_current\");\n" " let intid = GicV3::get_and_acknowledge_interrupt().expect(\"No pending " "interrupt\");\n" " info!(\"IRQ {intid:?}\");\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn fiq_current(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"fiq_current\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn serr_current(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"serr_current\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn sync_lower(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"sync_lower\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn irq_lower(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"irq_lower\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn fiq_lower(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"fiq_lower\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn serr_lower(_elr: u64, _spsr: u64) {\n" " error!(\"serr_lower\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:149 msgid "`src/logger.rs` (you shouldn't need to change this):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:153 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "// Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: main\n" "use crate::pl011::Uart;\n" "use core::fmt::Write;\n" "use log::{LevelFilter, Log, Metadata, Record, SetLoggerError};\n" "use spin::mutex::SpinMutex;\n" "\n" "static LOGGER: Logger = Logger {\n" " uart: SpinMutex::new(None),\n" "};\n" "\n" "struct Logger {\n" " uart: SpinMutex>,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Log for Logger {\n" " fn enabled(&self, _metadata: &Metadata) -> bool {\n" " true\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn log(&self, record: &Record) {\n" " writeln!(\n" " self.uart.lock().as_mut().unwrap(),\n" " \"[{}] {}\",\n" " record.level(),\n" " record.args()\n" " )\n" " .unwrap();\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn flush(&self) {}\n" "}\n" "\n" "/// Initialises UART logger.\n" "pub fn init(uart: Uart, max_level: LevelFilter) -> Result<(), " "SetLoggerError> {\n" " LOGGER.uart.lock().replace(uart);\n" "\n" " log::set_logger(&LOGGER)?;\n" " log::set_max_level(max_level);\n" " Ok(())\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:210 msgid "`src/pl011.rs` (you shouldn't need to change this):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:214 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "// Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "#![allow(unused)]\n" "\n" "use core::fmt::{self, Write};\n" "use core::ptr::{addr_of, addr_of_mut};\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Flags\n" "use bitflags::bitflags;\n" "\n" "bitflags! {\n" " /// Flags from the UART flag register.\n" " #[repr(transparent)]\n" " #[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]\n" " struct Flags: u16 {\n" " /// Clear to send.\n" " const CTS = 1 << 0;\n" " /// Data set ready.\n" " const DSR = 1 << 1;\n" " /// Data carrier detect.\n" " const DCD = 1 << 2;\n" " /// UART busy transmitting data.\n" " const BUSY = 1 << 3;\n" " /// Receive FIFO is empty.\n" " const RXFE = 1 << 4;\n" " /// Transmit FIFO is full.\n" " const TXFF = 1 << 5;\n" " /// Receive FIFO is full.\n" " const RXFF = 1 << 6;\n" " /// Transmit FIFO is empty.\n" " const TXFE = 1 << 7;\n" " /// Ring indicator.\n" " const RI = 1 << 8;\n" " }\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: Flags\n" "\n" "bitflags! {\n" " /// Flags from the UART Receive Status Register / Error Clear Register.\n" " #[repr(transparent)]\n" " #[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]\n" " struct ReceiveStatus: u16 {\n" " /// Framing error.\n" " const FE = 1 << 0;\n" " /// Parity error.\n" " const PE = 1 << 1;\n" " /// Break error.\n" " const BE = 1 << 2;\n" " /// Overrun error.\n" " const OE = 1 << 3;\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Registers\n" "#[repr(C, align(4))]\n" "struct Registers {\n" " dr: u16,\n" " _reserved0: [u8; 2],\n" " rsr: ReceiveStatus,\n" " _reserved1: [u8; 19],\n" " fr: Flags,\n" " _reserved2: [u8; 6],\n" " ilpr: u8,\n" " _reserved3: [u8; 3],\n" " ibrd: u16,\n" " _reserved4: [u8; 2],\n" " fbrd: u8,\n" " _reserved5: [u8; 3],\n" " lcr_h: u8,\n" " _reserved6: [u8; 3],\n" " cr: u16,\n" " _reserved7: [u8; 3],\n" " ifls: u8,\n" " _reserved8: [u8; 3],\n" " imsc: u16,\n" " _reserved9: [u8; 2],\n" " ris: u16,\n" " _reserved10: [u8; 2],\n" " mis: u16,\n" " _reserved11: [u8; 2],\n" " icr: u16,\n" " _reserved12: [u8; 2],\n" " dmacr: u8,\n" " _reserved13: [u8; 3],\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: Registers\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Uart\n" "/// Driver for a PL011 UART.\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "pub struct Uart {\n" " registers: *mut Registers,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Uart {\n" " /// Constructs a new instance of the UART driver for a PL011 device at " "the\n" " /// given base address.\n" " ///\n" " /// # Safety\n" " ///\n" " /// The given base address must point to the MMIO control registers of " "a\n" " /// PL011 device, which must be mapped into the address space of the " "process\n" " /// as device memory and not have any other aliases.\n" " pub unsafe fn new(base_address: *mut u32) -> Self {\n" " Self {\n" " registers: base_address as *mut Registers,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Writes a single byte to the UART.\n" " pub fn write_byte(&self, byte: u8) {\n" " // Wait until there is room in the TX buffer.\n" " while self.read_flag_register().contains(Flags::TXFF) {}\n" "\n" " // Safe because we know that self.registers points to the control\n" " // registers of a PL011 device which is appropriately mapped.\n" " unsafe {\n" " // Write to the TX buffer.\n" " addr_of_mut!((*self.registers).dr).write_volatile(byte.into());\n" " }\n" "\n" " // Wait until the UART is no longer busy.\n" " while self.read_flag_register().contains(Flags::BUSY) {}\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Reads and returns a pending byte, or `None` if nothing has been " "received.\n" " pub fn read_byte(&self) -> Option {\n" " if self.read_flag_register().contains(Flags::RXFE) {\n" " None\n" " } else {\n" " let data = unsafe { addr_of!((*self.registers).dr)." "read_volatile() };\n" " // TODO: Check for error conditions in bits 8-11.\n" " Some(data as u8)\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn read_flag_register(&self) -> Flags {\n" " // Safe because we know that self.registers points to the control\n" " // registers of a PL011 device which is appropriately mapped.\n" " unsafe { addr_of!((*self.registers).fr).read_volatile() }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: Uart\n" "\n" "impl Write for Uart {\n" " fn write_str(&mut self, s: &str) -> fmt::Result {\n" " for c in s.as_bytes() {\n" " self.write_byte(*c);\n" " }\n" " Ok(())\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// Safe because it just contains a pointer to device memory, which can be\n" "// accessed from any context.\n" "unsafe impl Send for Uart {}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:389 msgid "" "```toml\n" "[workspace]\n" "\n" "[package]\n" "name = \"rtc\"\n" "version = \"0.1.0\"\n" "edition = \"2021\"\n" "publish = false\n" "\n" "[dependencies]\n" "arm-gic = \"0.1.0\"\n" "bitflags = \"2.0.0\"\n" "chrono = { version = \"0.4.24\", default-features = false }\n" "log = \"0.4.17\"\n" "smccc = \"0.1.1\"\n" "spin = \"0.9.8\"\n" "\n" "[build-dependencies]\n" "cc = \"1.0.73\"\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:410 msgid "`build.rs` (you shouldn't need to change this):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:414 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "// Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "use cc::Build;\n" "use std::env;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " #[cfg(target_os = \"linux\")]\n" " env::set_var(\"CROSS_COMPILE\", \"aarch64-linux-gnu\");\n" " #[cfg(not(target_os = \"linux\"))]\n" " env::set_var(\"CROSS_COMPILE\", \"aarch64-none-elf\");\n" "\n" " Build::new()\n" " .file(\"entry.S\")\n" " .file(\"exceptions.S\")\n" " .file(\"idmap.S\")\n" " .compile(\"empty\")\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "// Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "use cc::Build;\n" "use std::env;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " #[cfg(target_os = \"linux\")]\n" " env::set_var(\"CROSS_COMPILE\", \"aarch64-linux-gnu\");\n" " #[cfg(not(target_os = \"linux\"))]\n" " env::set_var(\"CROSS_COMPILE\", \"aarch64-none-elf\");\n" "\n" " Build::new()\n" " .file(\"entry.S\")\n" " .file(\"exceptions.S\")\n" " .file(\"idmap.S\")\n" " .compile(\"empty\")\n" "}\n" "```" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:446 msgid "`entry.S` (you shouldn't need to change this):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:450 msgid "" "```armasm\n" "/*\n" " * Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" " *\n" " * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" " * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" " * You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" " *\n" " * https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" " *\n" " * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" " * distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" " * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" " * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" " * limitations under the License.\n" " */\n" "\n" ".macro adr_l, reg:req, sym:req\n" "\tadrp \\reg, \\sym\n" "\tadd \\reg, \\reg, :lo12:\\sym\n" ".endm\n" "\n" ".macro mov_i, reg:req, imm:req\n" "\tmovz \\reg, :abs_g3:\\imm\n" "\tmovk \\reg, :abs_g2_nc:\\imm\n" "\tmovk \\reg, :abs_g1_nc:\\imm\n" "\tmovk \\reg, :abs_g0_nc:\\imm\n" ".endm\n" "\n" ".set .L_MAIR_DEV_nGnRE,\t0x04\n" ".set .L_MAIR_MEM_WBWA,\t0xff\n" ".set .Lmairval, .L_MAIR_DEV_nGnRE | (.L_MAIR_MEM_WBWA << 8)\n" "\n" "/* 4 KiB granule size for TTBR0_EL1. */\n" ".set .L_TCR_TG0_4KB, 0x0 << 14\n" "/* 4 KiB granule size for TTBR1_EL1. */\n" ".set .L_TCR_TG1_4KB, 0x2 << 30\n" "/* Disable translation table walk for TTBR1_EL1, generating a translation " "fault instead. */\n" ".set .L_TCR_EPD1, 0x1 << 23\n" "/* Translation table walks for TTBR0_EL1 are inner sharable. */\n" ".set .L_TCR_SH_INNER, 0x3 << 12\n" "/*\n" " * Translation table walks for TTBR0_EL1 are outer write-back read-allocate " "write-allocate\n" " * cacheable.\n" " */\n" ".set .L_TCR_RGN_OWB, 0x1 << 10\n" "/*\n" " * Translation table walks for TTBR0_EL1 are inner write-back read-allocate " "write-allocate\n" " * cacheable.\n" " */\n" ".set .L_TCR_RGN_IWB, 0x1 << 8\n" "/* Size offset for TTBR0_EL1 is 2**39 bytes (512 GiB). */\n" ".set .L_TCR_T0SZ_512, 64 - 39\n" ".set .Ltcrval, .L_TCR_TG0_4KB | .L_TCR_TG1_4KB | .L_TCR_EPD1 | ." "L_TCR_RGN_OWB\n" ".set .Ltcrval, .Ltcrval | .L_TCR_RGN_IWB | .L_TCR_SH_INNER | ." "L_TCR_T0SZ_512\n" "\n" "/* Stage 1 instruction access cacheability is unaffected. */\n" ".set .L_SCTLR_ELx_I, 0x1 << 12\n" "/* SP alignment fault if SP is not aligned to a 16 byte boundary. */\n" ".set .L_SCTLR_ELx_SA, 0x1 << 3\n" "/* Stage 1 data access cacheability is unaffected. */\n" ".set .L_SCTLR_ELx_C, 0x1 << 2\n" "/* EL0 and EL1 stage 1 MMU enabled. */\n" ".set .L_SCTLR_ELx_M, 0x1 << 0\n" "/* Privileged Access Never is unchanged on taking an exception to EL1. */\n" ".set .L_SCTLR_EL1_SPAN, 0x1 << 23\n" "/* SETEND instruction disabled at EL0 in aarch32 mode. */\n" ".set .L_SCTLR_EL1_SED, 0x1 << 8\n" "/* Various IT instructions are disabled at EL0 in aarch32 mode. */\n" ".set .L_SCTLR_EL1_ITD, 0x1 << 7\n" ".set .L_SCTLR_EL1_RES1, (0x1 << 11) | (0x1 << 20) | (0x1 << 22) | (0x1 << " "28) | (0x1 << 29)\n" ".set .Lsctlrval, .L_SCTLR_ELx_M | .L_SCTLR_ELx_C | .L_SCTLR_ELx_SA | ." "L_SCTLR_EL1_ITD | .L_SCTLR_EL1_SED\n" ".set .Lsctlrval, .Lsctlrval | .L_SCTLR_ELx_I | .L_SCTLR_EL1_SPAN | ." "L_SCTLR_EL1_RES1\n" "\n" "/**\n" " * This is a generic entry point for an image. It carries out the operations " "required to prepare the\n" " * loaded image to be run. Specifically, it zeroes the bss section using " "registers x25 and above,\n" " * prepares the stack, enables floating point, and sets up the exception " "vector. It preserves x0-x3\n" " * for the Rust entry point, as these may contain boot parameters.\n" " */\n" ".section .init.entry, \"ax\"\n" ".global entry\n" "entry:\n" "\t/* Load and apply the memory management configuration, ready to enable MMU " "and caches. */\n" "\tadrp x30, idmap\n" "\tmsr ttbr0_el1, x30\n" "\n" "\tmov_i x30, .Lmairval\n" "\tmsr mair_el1, x30\n" "\n" "\tmov_i x30, .Ltcrval\n" "\t/* Copy the supported PA range into TCR_EL1.IPS. */\n" "\tmrs x29, id_aa64mmfr0_el1\n" "\tbfi x30, x29, #32, #4\n" "\n" "\tmsr tcr_el1, x30\n" "\n" "\tmov_i x30, .Lsctlrval\n" "\n" "\t/*\n" "\t * Ensure everything before this point has completed, then invalidate any " "potentially stale\n" "\t * local TLB entries before they start being used.\n" "\t */\n" "\tisb\n" "\ttlbi vmalle1\n" "\tic iallu\n" "\tdsb nsh\n" "\tisb\n" "\n" "\t/*\n" "\t * Configure sctlr_el1 to enable MMU and cache and don't proceed until " "this has completed.\n" "\t */\n" "\tmsr sctlr_el1, x30\n" "\tisb\n" "\n" "\t/* Disable trapping floating point access in EL1. */\n" "\tmrs x30, cpacr_el1\n" "\torr x30, x30, #(0x3 << 20)\n" "\tmsr cpacr_el1, x30\n" "\tisb\n" "\n" "\t/* Zero out the bss section. */\n" "\tadr_l x29, bss_begin\n" "\tadr_l x30, bss_end\n" "0:\tcmp x29, x30\n" "\tb.hs 1f\n" "\tstp xzr, xzr, [x29], #16\n" "\tb 0b\n" "\n" "1:\t/* Prepare the stack. */\n" "\tadr_l x30, boot_stack_end\n" "\tmov sp, x30\n" "\n" "\t/* Set up exception vector. */\n" "\tadr x30, vector_table_el1\n" "\tmsr vbar_el1, x30\n" "\n" "\t/* Call into Rust code. */\n" "\tbl main\n" "\n" "\t/* Loop forever waiting for interrupts. */\n" "2:\twfi\n" "\tb 2b\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:595 msgid "`exceptions.S` (you shouldn't need to change this):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:599 msgid "" "```armasm\n" "/*\n" " * Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" " *\n" " * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" " * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" " * You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" " *\n" " * https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" " *\n" " * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" " * distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" " * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" " * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" " * limitations under the License.\n" " */\n" "\n" "/**\n" " * Saves the volatile registers onto the stack. This currently takes 14\n" " * instructions, so it can be used in exception handlers with 18 " "instructions\n" " * left.\n" " *\n" " * On return, x0 and x1 are initialised to elr_el2 and spsr_el2 " "respectively,\n" " * which can be used as the first and second arguments of a subsequent " "call.\n" " */\n" ".macro save_volatile_to_stack\n" "\t/* Reserve stack space and save registers x0-x18, x29 & x30. */\n" "\tstp x0, x1, [sp, #-(8 * 24)]!\n" "\tstp x2, x3, [sp, #8 * 2]\n" "\tstp x4, x5, [sp, #8 * 4]\n" "\tstp x6, x7, [sp, #8 * 6]\n" "\tstp x8, x9, [sp, #8 * 8]\n" "\tstp x10, x11, [sp, #8 * 10]\n" "\tstp x12, x13, [sp, #8 * 12]\n" "\tstp x14, x15, [sp, #8 * 14]\n" "\tstp x16, x17, [sp, #8 * 16]\n" "\tstr x18, [sp, #8 * 18]\n" "\tstp x29, x30, [sp, #8 * 20]\n" "\n" "\t/*\n" "\t * Save elr_el1 & spsr_el1. This such that we can take nested exception\n" "\t * and still be able to unwind.\n" "\t */\n" "\tmrs x0, elr_el1\n" "\tmrs x1, spsr_el1\n" "\tstp x0, x1, [sp, #8 * 22]\n" ".endm\n" "\n" "/**\n" " * Restores the volatile registers from the stack. This currently takes 14\n" " * instructions, so it can be used in exception handlers while still leaving " "18\n" " * instructions left; if paired with save_volatile_to_stack, there are 4\n" " * instructions to spare.\n" " */\n" ".macro restore_volatile_from_stack\n" "\t/* Restore registers x2-x18, x29 & x30. */\n" "\tldp x2, x3, [sp, #8 * 2]\n" "\tldp x4, x5, [sp, #8 * 4]\n" "\tldp x6, x7, [sp, #8 * 6]\n" "\tldp x8, x9, [sp, #8 * 8]\n" "\tldp x10, x11, [sp, #8 * 10]\n" "\tldp x12, x13, [sp, #8 * 12]\n" "\tldp x14, x15, [sp, #8 * 14]\n" "\tldp x16, x17, [sp, #8 * 16]\n" "\tldr x18, [sp, #8 * 18]\n" "\tldp x29, x30, [sp, #8 * 20]\n" "\n" "\t/* Restore registers elr_el1 & spsr_el1, using x0 & x1 as scratch. */\n" "\tldp x0, x1, [sp, #8 * 22]\n" "\tmsr elr_el1, x0\n" "\tmsr spsr_el1, x1\n" "\n" "\t/* Restore x0 & x1, and release stack space. */\n" "\tldp x0, x1, [sp], #8 * 24\n" ".endm\n" "\n" "/**\n" " * This is a generic handler for exceptions taken at the current EL while " "using\n" " * SP0. It behaves similarly to the SPx case by first switching to SPx, " "doing\n" " * the work, then switching back to SP0 before returning.\n" " *\n" " * Switching to SPx and calling the Rust handler takes 16 instructions. To\n" " * restore and return we need an additional 16 instructions, so we can " "implement\n" " * the whole handler within the allotted 32 instructions.\n" " */\n" ".macro current_exception_sp0 handler:req\n" "\tmsr spsel, #1\n" "\tsave_volatile_to_stack\n" "\tbl \\handler\n" "\trestore_volatile_from_stack\n" "\tmsr spsel, #0\n" "\teret\n" ".endm\n" "\n" "/**\n" " * This is a generic handler for exceptions taken at the current EL while " "using\n" " * SPx. It saves volatile registers, calls the Rust handler, restores " "volatile\n" " * registers, then returns.\n" " *\n" " * This also works for exceptions taken from EL0, if we don't care about\n" " * non-volatile registers.\n" " *\n" " * Saving state and jumping to the Rust handler takes 15 instructions, and\n" " * restoring and returning also takes 15 instructions, so we can fit the " "whole\n" " * handler in 30 instructions, under the limit of 32.\n" " */\n" ".macro current_exception_spx handler:req\n" "\tsave_volatile_to_stack\n" "\tbl \\handler\n" "\trestore_volatile_from_stack\n" "\teret\n" ".endm\n" "\n" ".section .text.vector_table_el1, \"ax\"\n" ".global vector_table_el1\n" ".balign 0x800\n" "vector_table_el1:\n" "sync_cur_sp0:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_sp0 sync_exception_current\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "irq_cur_sp0:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_sp0 irq_current\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "fiq_cur_sp0:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_sp0 fiq_current\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "serr_cur_sp0:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_sp0 serr_current\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "sync_cur_spx:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_spx sync_exception_current\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "irq_cur_spx:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_spx irq_current\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "fiq_cur_spx:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_spx fiq_current\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "serr_cur_spx:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_spx serr_current\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "sync_lower_64:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_spx sync_lower\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "irq_lower_64:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_spx irq_lower\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "fiq_lower_64:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_spx fiq_lower\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "serr_lower_64:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_spx serr_lower\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "sync_lower_32:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_spx sync_lower\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "irq_lower_32:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_spx irq_lower\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "fiq_lower_32:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_spx fiq_lower\n" "\n" ".balign 0x80\n" "serr_lower_32:\n" "\tcurrent_exception_spx serr_lower\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:780 msgid "`idmap.S` (you shouldn't need to change this):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:784 msgid "" "```armasm\n" "/*\n" " * Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" " *\n" " * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" " * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" " * You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" " *\n" " * https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" " *\n" " * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" " * distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" " * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" " * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" " * limitations under the License.\n" " */\n" "\n" ".set .L_TT_TYPE_BLOCK, 0x1\n" ".set .L_TT_TYPE_PAGE, 0x3\n" ".set .L_TT_TYPE_TABLE, 0x3\n" "\n" "/* Access flag. */\n" ".set .L_TT_AF, 0x1 << 10\n" "/* Not global. */\n" ".set .L_TT_NG, 0x1 << 11\n" ".set .L_TT_XN, 0x3 << 53\n" "\n" ".set .L_TT_MT_DEV, 0x0 << 2\t\t\t// MAIR #0 (DEV_nGnRE)\n" ".set .L_TT_MT_MEM, (0x1 << 2) | (0x3 << 8)\t// MAIR #1 (MEM_WBWA), inner " "shareable\n" "\n" ".set .L_BLOCK_DEV, .L_TT_TYPE_BLOCK | .L_TT_MT_DEV | .L_TT_AF | .L_TT_XN\n" ".set .L_BLOCK_MEM, .L_TT_TYPE_BLOCK | .L_TT_MT_MEM | .L_TT_AF | .L_TT_NG\n" "\n" ".section \".rodata.idmap\", \"a\", %progbits\n" ".global idmap\n" ".align 12\n" "idmap:\n" "\t/* level 1 */\n" "\t.quad\t\t.L_BLOCK_DEV | 0x0\t\t // 1 GiB of device mappings\n" "\t.quad\t\t.L_BLOCK_MEM | 0x40000000\t// 1 GiB of DRAM\n" "\t.fill\t\t254, 8, 0x0\t\t\t// 254 GiB of unmapped VA space\n" "\t.quad\t\t.L_BLOCK_DEV | 0x4000000000 // 1 GiB of device mappings\n" "\t.fill\t\t255, 8, 0x0\t\t\t// 255 GiB of remaining VA space\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:829 msgid "`image.ld` (you shouldn't need to change this):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:833 msgid "" "```ld\n" "/*\n" " * Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" " *\n" " * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" " * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" " * You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" " *\n" " * https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" " *\n" " * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" " * distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" " * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" " * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" " * limitations under the License.\n" " */\n" "\n" "/*\n" " * Code will start running at this symbol which is placed at the start of " "the\n" " * image.\n" " */\n" "ENTRY(entry)\n" "\n" "MEMORY\n" "{\n" "\timage : ORIGIN = 0x40080000, LENGTH = 2M\n" "}\n" "\n" "SECTIONS\n" "{\n" "\t/*\n" "\t * Collect together the code.\n" "\t */\n" "\t.init : ALIGN(4096) {\n" "\t\ttext_begin = .;\n" "\t\t*(.init.entry)\n" "\t\t*(.init.*)\n" "\t} >image\n" "\t.text : {\n" "\t\t*(.text.*)\n" "\t} >image\n" "\ttext_end = .;\n" "\n" "\t/*\n" "\t * Collect together read-only data.\n" "\t */\n" "\t.rodata : ALIGN(4096) {\n" "\t\trodata_begin = .;\n" "\t\t*(.rodata.*)\n" "\t} >image\n" "\t.got : {\n" "\t\t*(.got)\n" "\t} >image\n" "\trodata_end = .;\n" "\n" "\t/*\n" "\t * Collect together the read-write data including .bss at the end which\n" "\t * will be zero'd by the entry code.\n" "\t */\n" "\t.data : ALIGN(4096) {\n" "\t\tdata_begin = .;\n" "\t\t*(.data.*)\n" "\t\t/*\n" "\t\t * The entry point code assumes that .data is a multiple of 32\n" "\t\t * bytes long.\n" "\t\t */\n" "\t\t. = ALIGN(32);\n" "\t\tdata_end = .;\n" "\t} >image\n" "\n" "\t/* Everything beyond this point will not be included in the binary. */\n" "\tbin_end = .;\n" "\n" "\t/* The entry point code assumes that .bss is 16-byte aligned. */\n" "\t.bss : ALIGN(16) {\n" "\t\tbss_begin = .;\n" "\t\t*(.bss.*)\n" "\t\t*(COMMON)\n" "\t\t. = ALIGN(16);\n" "\t\tbss_end = .;\n" "\t} >image\n" "\n" "\t.stack (NOLOAD) : ALIGN(4096) {\n" "\t\tboot_stack_begin = .;\n" "\t\t. += 40 * 4096;\n" "\t\t. = ALIGN(4096);\n" "\t\tboot_stack_end = .;\n" "\t} >image\n" "\n" "\t. = ALIGN(4K);\n" "\tPROVIDE(dma_region = .);\n" "\n" "\t/*\n" "\t * Remove unused sections from the image.\n" "\t */\n" "\t/DISCARD/ : {\n" "\t\t/* The image loads itself so doesn't need these sections. */\n" "\t\t*(.gnu.hash)\n" "\t\t*(.hash)\n" "\t\t*(.interp)\n" "\t\t*(.eh_frame_hdr)\n" "\t\t*(.eh_frame)\n" "\t\t*(.note.gnu.build-id)\n" "\t}\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:940 msgid "`Makefile` (you shouldn't need to change this):" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:944 msgid "" "```makefile\n" "# Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "#\n" "# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "# You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "#\n" "# http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "#\n" "# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "# distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "# limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "UNAME := $(shell uname -s)\n" "ifeq ($(UNAME),Linux)\n" "\tTARGET = aarch64-linux-gnu\n" "else\n" "\tTARGET = aarch64-none-elf\n" "endif\n" "OBJCOPY = $(TARGET)-objcopy\n" "\n" ".PHONY: build qemu_minimal qemu qemu_logger\n" "\n" "all: rtc.bin\n" "\n" "build:\n" "\tcargo build\n" "\n" "rtc.bin: build\n" "\t$(OBJCOPY) -O binary target/aarch64-unknown-none/debug/rtc $@\n" "\n" "qemu: rtc.bin\n" "\tqemu-system-aarch64 -machine virt,gic-version=3 -cpu max -serial mon:stdio " "-display none -kernel $< -s\n" "\n" "clean:\n" "\tcargo clean\n" "\trm -f *.bin\n" "```" msgstr "" "```makefile\n" "# Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "#\n" "# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "# You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "#\n" "# http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "#\n" "# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "# distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "# limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "UNAME := $(shell uname -s)\n" "ifeq ($(UNAME),Linux)\n" "\tTARGET = aarch64-linux-gnu\n" "else\n" "\tTARGET = aarch64-none-elf\n" "endif\n" "OBJCOPY = $(TARGET)-objcopy\n" "\n" ".PHONY: build qemu_minimal qemu qemu_logger\n" "\n" "all: rtc.bin\n" "\n" "build:\n" "\tcargo build\n" "\n" "rtc.bin: build\n" "\t$(OBJCOPY) -O binary target/aarch64-unknown-none/debug/rtc $@\n" "\n" "qemu: rtc.bin\n" "\tqemu-system-aarch64 -machine virt,gic-version=3 -cpu max -serial mon:stdio " "-display none -kernel $< -s\n" "\n" "clean:\n" "\tcargo clean\n" "\trm -f *.bin\n" "```" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:989 msgid "" "```toml\n" "[build]\n" "target = \"aarch64-unknown-none\"\n" "rustflags = [\"-C\", \"link-arg=-Timage.ld\"]\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/rtc.md:995 msgid "Run the code in QEMU with `make qemu`." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency.md:1 #, fuzzy msgid "Welcome to Concurrency in Rust" msgstr "Velkommen til Comprehensive Rust 🦀" #: src/concurrency.md:3 msgid "" "Rust has full support for concurrency using OS threads with mutexes and " "channels." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency.md:6 msgid "" "The Rust type system plays an important role in making many concurrency bugs " "compile time bugs. This is often referred to as _fearless concurrency_ since " "you can rely on the compiler to ensure correctness at runtime." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/threads.md:3 msgid "Rust threads work similarly to threads in other languages:" msgstr "Tråde (eng: _threads_) i Rust virker på samme måde som i andre sprog:" #: src/concurrency/threads.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::thread;\n" "use std::time::Duration;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " thread::spawn(|| {\n" " for i in 1..10 {\n" " println!(\"Count in thread: {i}!\");\n" " thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(5));\n" " }\n" " });\n" "\n" " for i in 1..5 {\n" " println!(\"Main thread: {i}\");\n" " thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(5));\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::thread;\n" "use std::time::Duration;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " thread::spawn(|| {\n" " for i in 1..10 {\n" " println!(\"Tæller i tråden: {i}!\");\n" " thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(5));\n" " }\n" " });\n" "\n" " for i in 1..5 {\n" " println!(\"Hovedtråden: {i}\");\n" " thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(5));\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" #: src/concurrency/threads.md:24 msgid "Threads are all daemon threads, the main thread does not wait for them." msgstr "" "Tråde er alle dæmontråde (eng: _daemon threads_), hvilket vil sige at " "hovedtråden ikke venter på dem." #: src/concurrency/threads.md:25 msgid "Thread panics are independent of each other." msgstr "Hver tråd kan gå i panik uafhængigt af andre tråde." #: src/concurrency/threads.md:26 msgid "Panics can carry a payload, which can be unpacked with `downcast_ref`." msgstr "En panik kan have en nyttelast som kan udpakkes med `downcast_ref`." #: src/concurrency/threads.md:32 msgid "" "Notice that the thread is stopped before it reaches 10 — the main thread is " "not waiting." msgstr "Bemærk at tråden stopper før den når 10 --- hovedtråden venter ikke." #: src/concurrency/threads.md:35 msgid "" "Use `let handle = thread::spawn(...)` and later `handle.join()` to wait for " "the thread to finish." msgstr "" "Brug `let handle = thread::spawn(...)` og senere `handle.join()` for at " "vente på at tråden afsluttes." #: src/concurrency/threads.md:38 msgid "Trigger a panic in the thread, notice how this doesn't affect `main`." msgstr "Skab en panik i tråden, bemærk hvordan dette ikke påvirker `main`." #: src/concurrency/threads.md:40 msgid "" "Use the `Result` return value from `handle.join()` to get access to the " "panic payload. This is a good time to talk about [`Any`](https://doc.rust-" "lang.org/std/any/index.html)." msgstr "" "Bruge `Result`\\-returværdien fra `handle.join()` til at få adgang til " "panikkens nyttelast. Dette er et godt tidspunkt til at snakke om [`Any`]" "(https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/any/index.html)." #: src/concurrency/scoped-threads.md:3 msgid "Normal threads cannot borrow from their environment:" msgstr "Normale tråde kan ikke låne fra deres omgivelser:" #: src/concurrency/scoped-threads.md:5 #, fuzzy msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use std::thread;\n" "\n" "fn foo() {\n" " let s = String::from(\"Hello\");\n" " thread::spawn(|| {\n" " println!(\"Length: {}\", s.len());\n" " });\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " foo();\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use std::thread;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let s = String::from(\"Hello\");\n" "\n" " thread::spawn(|| {\n" " println!(\"Længde: {}\", s.len());\n" " });\n" "}\n" "```" #: src/concurrency/scoped-threads.md:20 msgid "" "However, you can use a [scoped thread](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/thread/" "fn.scope.html) for this:" msgstr "" "Du kan dog bruge en [tråd med virkefelt (eng: _scoped thread_)](https://doc." "rust-lang.org/std/thread/fn.scope.html) for at opnå dette:" #: src/concurrency/scoped-threads.md:22 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::thread;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let s = String::from(\"Hello\");\n" "\n" " thread::scope(|scope| {\n" " scope.spawn(|| {\n" " println!(\"Length: {}\", s.len());\n" " });\n" " });\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::thread;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let s = String::from(\"Hello\");\n" "\n" " thread::scope(|scope| {\n" " scope.spawn(|| {\n" " println!(\"Længde: {}\", s.len());\n" " });\n" " });\n" "}\n" "```" #: src/concurrency/scoped-threads.md:40 msgid "" "The reason for that is that when the `thread::scope` function completes, all " "the threads are guaranteed to be joined, so they can return borrowed data." msgstr "" "Grunden er, at `thread::scope`\\-funktionen garanterer at alle trådene er " "blevet forenet med hovedtråden når kaldet afsluttet. De vil således " "returnere det lånte data." #: src/concurrency/scoped-threads.md:41 msgid "" "Normal Rust borrowing rules apply: you can either borrow mutably by one " "thread, or immutably by any number of threads." msgstr "" "De normale låneregler for Rust gælder: du kan enten lade én tråd låne data " "for at ændre på det, eller du kan lade flere tråde låne data uden at ændre " "på det." #: src/concurrency/channels.md:3 msgid "" "Rust channels have two parts: a `Sender` and a `Receiver`. The two " "parts are connected via the channel, but you only see the end-points." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/channels.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::sync::mpsc;\n" "use std::thread;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();\n" "\n" " tx.send(10).unwrap();\n" " tx.send(20).unwrap();\n" "\n" " println!(\"Received: {:?}\", rx.recv());\n" " println!(\"Received: {:?}\", rx.recv());\n" "\n" " let tx2 = tx.clone();\n" " tx2.send(30).unwrap();\n" " println!(\"Received: {:?}\", rx.recv());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/channels.md:27 msgid "" "`mpsc` stands for Multi-Producer, Single-Consumer. `Sender` and `SyncSender` " "implement `Clone` (so you can make multiple producers) but `Receiver` does " "not." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/channels.md:29 msgid "" "`send()` and `recv()` return `Result`. If they return `Err`, it means the " "counterpart `Sender` or `Receiver` is dropped and the channel is closed." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/channels/unbounded.md:3 msgid "You get an unbounded and asynchronous channel with `mpsc::channel()`:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/channels/unbounded.md:5 #, fuzzy msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::sync::mpsc;\n" "use std::thread;\n" "use std::time::Duration;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();\n" "\n" " thread::spawn(move || {\n" " let thread_id = thread::current().id();\n" " for i in 1..10 {\n" " tx.send(format!(\"Message {i}\")).unwrap();\n" " println!(\"{thread_id:?}: sent Message {i}\");\n" " }\n" " println!(\"{thread_id:?}: done\");\n" " });\n" " thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100));\n" "\n" " for msg in rx.iter() {\n" " println!(\"Main: got {msg}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::thread;\n" "use std::time::Duration;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " thread::spawn(|| {\n" " for i in 1..10 {\n" " println!(\"Tæller i tråden: {i}!\");\n" " thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(5));\n" " }\n" " });\n" "\n" " for i in 1..5 {\n" " println!(\"Hovedtråden: {i}\");\n" " thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(5));\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" #: src/concurrency/channels/bounded.md:3 msgid "" "With bounded (synchronous) channels, `send` can block the current thread:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/channels/bounded.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::sync::mpsc;\n" "use std::thread;\n" "use std::time::Duration;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let (tx, rx) = mpsc::sync_channel(3);\n" "\n" " thread::spawn(move || {\n" " let thread_id = thread::current().id();\n" " for i in 1..10 {\n" " tx.send(format!(\"Message {i}\")).unwrap();\n" " println!(\"{thread_id:?}: sent Message {i}\");\n" " }\n" " println!(\"{thread_id:?}: done\");\n" " });\n" " thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100));\n" "\n" " for msg in rx.iter() {\n" " println!(\"Main: got {msg}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/channels/bounded.md:31 msgid "" "Calling `send` will block the current thread until there is space in the " "channel for the new message. The thread can be blocked indefinitely if there " "is nobody who reads from the channel." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/channels/bounded.md:32 msgid "" "A call to `send` will abort with an error (that is why it returns `Result`) " "if the channel is closed. A channel is closed when the receiver is dropped." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/channels/bounded.md:33 msgid "" "A bounded channel with a size of zero is called a \"rendezvous channel\". " "Every send will block the current thread until another thread calls `read`." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync.md:1 msgid "`Send` and `Sync`" msgstr "`Send` og `Sync`" #: src/concurrency/send-sync.md:3 msgid "" "How does Rust know to forbid shared access across thread? The answer is in " "two traits:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync.md:5 msgid "" "[`Send`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/marker/trait.Send.html): a type `T` " "is `Send` if it is safe to move a `T` across a thread boundary." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync.md:7 msgid "" "[`Sync`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/marker/trait.Sync.html): a type `T` " "is `Sync` if it is safe to move a `&T` across a thread boundary." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync.md:10 msgid "" "`Send` and `Sync` are [unsafe traits](../unsafe/unsafe-traits.md). The " "compiler will automatically derive them for your types as long as they only " "contain `Send` and `Sync` types. You can also implement them manually when " "you know it is valid." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync.md:20 msgid "" "One can think of these traits as markers that the type has certain thread-" "safety properties." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync.md:21 msgid "They can be used in the generic constraints as normal traits." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/send.md:1 msgid "`Send`" msgstr "`Send`" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/send.md:3 msgid "" "A type `T` is [`Send`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/marker/trait.Send.html) " "if it is safe to move a `T` value to another thread." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/send.md:5 msgid "" "The effect of moving ownership to another thread is that _destructors_ will " "run in that thread. So the question is when you can allocate a value in one " "thread and deallocate it in another." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/send.md:13 msgid "" "As an example, a connection to the SQLite library must only be accessed from " "a single thread." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/sync.md:1 msgid "`Sync`" msgstr "`Sync`" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/sync.md:3 msgid "" "A type `T` is [`Sync`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/marker/trait.Sync.html) " "if it is safe to access a `T` value from multiple threads at the same time." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/sync.md:6 msgid "More precisely, the definition is:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/sync.md:8 msgid "`T` is `Sync` if and only if `&T` is `Send`" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/sync.md:14 msgid "" "This statement is essentially a shorthand way of saying that if a type is " "thread-safe for shared use, it is also thread-safe to pass references of it " "across threads." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/sync.md:16 msgid "" "This is because if a type is Sync it means that it can be shared across " "multiple threads without the risk of data races or other synchronization " "issues, so it is safe to move it to another thread. A reference to the type " "is also safe to move to another thread, because the data it references can " "be accessed from any thread safely." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:3 msgid "`Send + Sync`" msgstr "`Send + Sync`" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:5 msgid "Most types you come across are `Send + Sync`:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:7 msgid "`i8`, `f32`, `bool`, `char`, `&str`, ..." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:8 msgid "`(T1, T2)`, `[T; N]`, `&[T]`, `struct { x: T }`, ..." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:9 msgid "`String`, `Option`, `Vec`, `Box`, ..." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:10 msgid "`Arc`: Explicitly thread-safe via atomic reference count." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:11 msgid "`Mutex`: Explicitly thread-safe via internal locking." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:12 msgid "`AtomicBool`, `AtomicU8`, ...: Uses special atomic instructions." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:14 msgid "" "The generic types are typically `Send + Sync` when the type parameters are " "`Send + Sync`." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:17 msgid "`Send + !Sync`" msgstr "`Send + !Sync`" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:19 msgid "" "These types can be moved to other threads, but they're not thread-safe. " "Typically because of interior mutability:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:22 msgid "`mpsc::Sender`" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:23 msgid "`mpsc::Receiver`" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:24 msgid "`Cell`" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:25 msgid "`RefCell`" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:27 msgid "`!Send + Sync`" msgstr "`!Send + Sync`" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:29 msgid "" "These types are thread-safe, but they cannot be moved to another thread:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:31 msgid "" "`MutexGuard`: Uses OS level primitives which must be deallocated on the " "thread which created them." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:34 msgid "`!Send + !Sync`" msgstr "`!Send + !Sync`" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:36 msgid "These types are not thread-safe and cannot be moved to other threads:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:38 msgid "" "`Rc`: each `Rc` has a reference to an `RcBox`, which contains a non-" "atomic reference count." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/send-sync/examples.md:40 msgid "" "`*const T`, `*mut T`: Rust assumes raw pointers may have special concurrency " "considerations." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state.md:3 msgid "" "Rust uses the type system to enforce synchronization of shared data. This is " "primarily done via two types:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state.md:6 msgid "" "[`Arc`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.Arc.html), atomic " "reference counted `T`: handles sharing between threads and takes care to " "deallocate `T` when the last reference is dropped," msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state.md:8 msgid "" "[`Mutex`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.Mutex.html): ensures " "mutually exclusive access to the `T` value." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/arc.md:1 msgid "`Arc`" msgstr "`Arc`" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/arc.md:3 msgid "" "[`Arc`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.Arc.html) allows shared " "read-only access via `Arc::clone`:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/arc.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::thread;\n" "use std::sync::Arc;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let v = Arc::new(vec![10, 20, 30]);\n" " let mut handles = Vec::new();\n" " for _ in 1..5 {\n" " let v = Arc::clone(&v);\n" " handles.push(thread::spawn(move || {\n" " let thread_id = thread::current().id();\n" " println!(\"{thread_id:?}: {v:?}\");\n" " }));\n" " }\n" "\n" " handles.into_iter().for_each(|h| h.join().unwrap());\n" " println!(\"v: {v:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/arc.md:29 msgid "" "`Arc` stands for \"Atomic Reference Counted\", a thread safe version of `Rc` " "that uses atomic operations." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/arc.md:31 msgid "" "`Arc` implements `Clone` whether or not `T` does. It implements `Send` " "and `Sync` if and only if `T` implements them both." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/arc.md:33 msgid "" "`Arc::clone()` has the cost of atomic operations that get executed, but " "after that the use of the `T` is free." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/arc.md:35 msgid "" "Beware of reference cycles, `Arc` does not use a garbage collector to detect " "them." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/arc.md:36 msgid "`std::sync::Weak` can help." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/mutex.md:1 msgid "`Mutex`" msgstr "`Mutex`" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/mutex.md:3 msgid "" "[`Mutex`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.Mutex.html) ensures " "mutual exclusion _and_ allows mutable access to `T` behind a read-only " "interface:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/mutex.md:6 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::sync::Mutex;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let v = Mutex::new(vec![10, 20, 30]);\n" " println!(\"v: {:?}\", v.lock().unwrap());\n" "\n" " {\n" " let mut guard = v.lock().unwrap();\n" " guard.push(40);\n" " }\n" "\n" " println!(\"v: {:?}\", v.lock().unwrap());\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/mutex.md:22 msgid "" "Notice how we have a [`impl Sync for Mutex`](https://doc.rust-" "lang.org/std/sync/struct.Mutex.html#impl-Sync-for-Mutex%3CT%3E) blanket " "implementation." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/mutex.md:31 msgid "" "`Mutex` in Rust looks like a collection with just one element - the " "protected data." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/mutex.md:32 msgid "" "It is not possible to forget to acquire the mutex before accessing the " "protected data." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/mutex.md:33 msgid "" "You can get an `&mut T` from an `&Mutex` by taking the lock. The " "`MutexGuard` ensures that the `&mut T` doesn't outlive the lock being held." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/mutex.md:35 msgid "" "`Mutex` implements both `Send` and `Sync` iff (if and only if) `T` " "implements `Send`." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/mutex.md:36 msgid "A read-write lock counterpart - `RwLock`." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/mutex.md:37 msgid "Why does `lock()` return a `Result`? " msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/mutex.md:38 msgid "" "If the thread that held the `Mutex` panicked, the `Mutex` becomes " "\"poisoned\" to signal that the data it protected might be in an " "inconsistent state. Calling `lock()` on a poisoned mutex fails with a " "[`PoisonError`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/sync/struct.PoisonError.html). " "You can call `into_inner()` on the error to recover the data regardless." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/example.md:3 msgid "Let us see `Arc` and `Mutex` in action:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/example.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use std::thread;\n" "// use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let v = vec![10, 20, 30];\n" " let handle = thread::spawn(|| {\n" " v.push(10);\n" " });\n" " v.push(1000);\n" "\n" " handle.join().unwrap();\n" " println!(\"v: {v:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/example.md:23 msgid "Possible solution:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/example.md:25 msgid "" "```rust,editable\n" "use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};\n" "use std::thread;\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let v = Arc::new(Mutex::new(vec![10, 20, 30]));\n" "\n" " let v2 = Arc::clone(&v);\n" " let handle = thread::spawn(move || {\n" " let mut v2 = v2.lock().unwrap();\n" " v2.push(10);\n" " });\n" "\n" " {\n" " let mut v = v.lock().unwrap();\n" " v.push(1000);\n" " }\n" "\n" " handle.join().unwrap();\n" "\n" " println!(\"v: {v:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/example.md:49 msgid "Notable parts:" msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/example.md:51 msgid "" "`v` is wrapped in both `Arc` and `Mutex`, because their concerns are " "orthogonal." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/example.md:52 msgid "" "Wrapping a `Mutex` in an `Arc` is a common pattern to share mutable state " "between threads." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/example.md:53 msgid "" "`v: Arc<_>` needs to be cloned as `v2` before it can be moved into another " "thread. Note `move` was added to the lambda signature." msgstr "" #: src/concurrency/shared_state/example.md:54 msgid "" "Blocks are introduced to narrow the scope of the `LockGuard` as much as " "possible." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/morning.md:3 msgid "Let us practice our new concurrency skills with" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/morning.md:5 msgid "Dining philosophers: a classic problem in concurrency." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/morning.md:7 msgid "" "Multi-threaded link checker: a larger project where you'll use Cargo to " "download dependencies and then check links in parallel." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers.md:3 msgid "The dining philosophers problem is a classic problem in concurrency:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers.md:5 msgid "" "Five philosophers dine together at the same table. Each philosopher has " "their own place at the table. There is a fork between each plate. The dish " "served is a kind of spaghetti which has to be eaten with two forks. Each " "philosopher can only alternately think and eat. Moreover, a philosopher can " "only eat their spaghetti when they have both a left and right fork. Thus two " "forks will only be available when their two nearest neighbors are thinking, " "not eating. After an individual philosopher finishes eating, they will put " "down both forks." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers.md:13 msgid "" "You will need a local [Cargo installation](../../cargo/running-locally.md) " "for this exercise. Copy the code below to a file called `src/main.rs`, fill " "out the blanks, and test that `cargo run` does not deadlock:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers.md:19 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "use std::sync::{mpsc, Arc, Mutex};\n" "use std::thread;\n" "use std::time::Duration;\n" "\n" "struct Fork;\n" "\n" "struct Philosopher {\n" " name: String,\n" " // left_fork: ...\n" " // right_fork: ...\n" " // thoughts: ...\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Philosopher {\n" " fn think(&self) {\n" " self.thoughts\n" " .send(format!(\"Eureka! {} has a new idea!\", &self.name))\n" " .unwrap();\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn eat(&self) {\n" " // Pick up forks...\n" " println!(\"{} is eating...\", &self.name);\n" " thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(10));\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "static PHILOSOPHERS: &[&str] =\n" " &[\"Socrates\", \"Plato\", \"Aristotle\", \"Thales\", \"Pythagoras\"];\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " // Create forks\n" "\n" " // Create philosophers\n" "\n" " // Make each of them think and eat 100 times\n" "\n" " // Output their thoughts\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers.md:61 msgid "You can use the following `Cargo.toml`:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers.md:65 msgid "" "```toml\n" "[package]\n" "name = \"dining-philosophers\"\n" "version = \"0.1.0\"\n" "edition = \"2021\"\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:3 msgid "" "Let us use our new knowledge to create a multi-threaded link checker. It " "should start at a webpage and check that links on the page are valid. It " "should recursively check other pages on the same domain and keep doing this " "until all pages have been validated." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:8 msgid "" "For this, you will need an HTTP client such as [`reqwest`](https://docs.rs/" "reqwest/). Create a new Cargo project and `reqwest` it as a dependency with:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:11 msgid "" "```shell\n" "cargo new link-checker\n" "cd link-checker\n" "cargo add --features blocking,rustls-tls reqwest\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:17 msgid "" "If `cargo add` fails with `error: no such subcommand`, then please edit the " "`Cargo.toml` file by hand. Add the dependencies listed below." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:20 msgid "" "You will also need a way to find links. We can use [`scraper`](https://docs." "rs/scraper/) for that:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:22 msgid "" "```shell\n" "cargo add scraper\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:26 msgid "" "Finally, we'll need some way of handling errors. We use [`thiserror`]" "(https://docs.rs/thiserror/) for that:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:29 msgid "" "```shell\n" "cargo add thiserror\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:33 msgid "" "The `cargo add` calls will update the `Cargo.toml` file to look like this:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:37 msgid "" "```toml\n" "[package]\n" "name = \"link-checker\"\n" "version = \"0.1.0\"\n" "edition = \"2021\"\n" "publish = false\n" "\n" "[dependencies]\n" "reqwest = { version = \"0.11.12\", features = [\"blocking\", \"rustls-" "tls\"] }\n" "scraper = \"0.13.0\"\n" "thiserror = \"1.0.37\"\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:50 msgid "" "You can now download the start page. Try with a small site such as `https://" "www.google.org/`." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:53 msgid "Your `src/main.rs` file should look something like this:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:57 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "use reqwest::{blocking::Client, Url};\n" "use scraper::{Html, Selector};\n" "use thiserror::Error;\n" "\n" "#[derive(Error, Debug)]\n" "enum Error {\n" " #[error(\"request error: {0}\")]\n" " ReqwestError(#[from] reqwest::Error),\n" " #[error(\"bad http response: {0}\")]\n" " BadResponse(String),\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct CrawlCommand {\n" " url: Url,\n" " extract_links: bool,\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn visit_page(client: &Client, command: &CrawlCommand) -> Result, " "Error> {\n" " println!(\"Checking {:#}\", command.url);\n" " let response = client.get(command.url.clone()).send()?;\n" " if !response.status().is_success() {\n" " return Err(Error::BadResponse(response.status().to_string()));\n" " }\n" "\n" " let mut link_urls = Vec::new();\n" " if !command.extract_links {\n" " return Ok(link_urls);\n" " }\n" "\n" " let base_url = response.url().to_owned();\n" " let body_text = response.text()?;\n" " let document = Html::parse_document(&body_text);\n" "\n" " let selector = Selector::parse(\"a\").unwrap();\n" " let href_values = document\n" " .select(&selector)\n" " .filter_map(|element| element.value().attr(\"href\"));\n" " for href in href_values {\n" " match base_url.join(href) {\n" " Ok(link_url) => {\n" " link_urls.push(link_url);\n" " }\n" " Err(err) => {\n" " println!(\"On {base_url:#}: ignored unparsable {href:?}: " "{err}\");\n" " }\n" " }\n" " }\n" " Ok(link_urls)\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let client = Client::new();\n" " let start_url = Url::parse(\"https://www.google.org\").unwrap();\n" " let crawl_command = CrawlCommand{ url: start_url, extract_links: " "true };\n" " match visit_page(&client, &crawl_command) {\n" " Ok(links) => println!(\"Links: {links:#?}\"),\n" " Err(err) => println!(\"Could not extract links: {err:#}\"),\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:120 msgid "Run the code in `src/main.rs` with" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:122 msgid "" "```shell\n" "cargo run\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:128 msgid "" "Use threads to check the links in parallel: send the URLs to be checked to a " "channel and let a few threads check the URLs in parallel." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/link-checker.md:130 msgid "" "Extend this to recursively extract links from all pages on the `www.google." "org` domain. Put an upper limit of 100 pages or so so that you don't end up " "being blocked by the site." msgstr "" #: src/async.md:1 msgid "Async Rust" msgstr "" #: src/async.md:3 msgid "" "\"Async\" is a concurrency model where multiple tasks are executed " "concurrently by executing each task until it would block, then switching to " "another task that is ready to make progress. The model allows running a " "larger number of tasks on a limited number of threads. This is because the " "per-task overhead is typically very low and operating systems provide " "primitives for efficiently identifying I/O that is able to proceed." msgstr "" #: src/async.md:10 msgid "" "Rust's asynchronous operation is based on \"futures\", which represent work " "that may be completed in the future. Futures are \"polled\" until they " "signal that they are complete." msgstr "" #: src/async.md:14 msgid "" "Futures are polled by an async runtime, and several different runtimes are " "available." msgstr "" #: src/async.md:17 msgid "Comparisons" msgstr "Sammenligninger" #: src/async.md:19 msgid "" "Python has a similar model in its `asyncio`. However, its `Future` type is " "callback-based, and not polled. Async Python programs require a \"loop\", " "similar to a runtime in Rust." msgstr "" #: src/async.md:23 msgid "" "JavaScript's `Promise` is similar, but again callback-based. The language " "runtime implements the event loop, so many of the details of Promise " "resolution are hidden." msgstr "" #: src/async/async-await.md:1 msgid "`async`/`await`" msgstr "`async`/`await`" #: src/async/async-await.md:3 msgid "" "At a high level, async Rust code looks very much like \"normal\" sequential " "code:" msgstr "" #: src/async/async-await.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use futures::executor::block_on;\n" "\n" "async fn count_to(count: i32) {\n" " for i in 1..=count {\n" " println!(\"Count is: {i}!\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "async fn async_main(count: i32) {\n" " count_to(count).await;\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " block_on(async_main(10));\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/async-await.md:27 msgid "" "Note that this is a simplified example to show the syntax. There is no long " "running operation or any real concurrency in it!" msgstr "" #: src/async/async-await.md:30 msgid "What is the return type of an async call?" msgstr "" #: src/async/async-await.md:31 msgid "Use `let future: () = async_main(10);` in `main` to see the type." msgstr "" #: src/async/async-await.md:33 msgid "" "The \"async\" keyword is syntactic sugar. The compiler replaces the return " "type with a future. " msgstr "" #: src/async/async-await.md:36 msgid "" "You cannot make `main` async, without additional instructions to the " "compiler on how to use the returned future." msgstr "" #: src/async/async-await.md:39 msgid "" "You need an executor to run async code. `block_on` blocks the current thread " "until the provided future has run to completion. " msgstr "" #: src/async/async-await.md:42 msgid "" "`.await` asynchronously waits for the completion of another operation. " "Unlike `block_on`, `.await` doesn't block the current thread." msgstr "" #: src/async/async-await.md:45 msgid "" "`.await` can only be used inside an `async` function (or block; these are " "introduced later). " msgstr "" #: src/async/futures.md:3 msgid "" "[`Future`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/future/trait.Future.html) is a " "trait, implemented by objects that represent an operation that may not be " "complete yet. A future can be polled, and `poll` returns a [`Poll`](https://" "doc.rust-lang.org/std/task/enum.Poll.html)." msgstr "" #: src/async/futures.md:8 msgid "" "```rust\n" "use std::pin::Pin;\n" "use std::task::Context;\n" "\n" "pub trait Future {\n" " type Output;\n" " fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll;\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub enum Poll {\n" " Ready(T),\n" " Pending,\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/futures.md:23 msgid "" "An async function returns an `impl Future`. It's also possible (but " "uncommon) to implement `Future` for your own types. For example, the " "`JoinHandle` returned from `tokio::spawn` implements `Future` to allow " "joining to it." msgstr "" #: src/async/futures.md:27 msgid "" "The `.await` keyword, applied to a Future, causes the current async function " "to pause until that Future is ready, and then evaluates to its output." msgstr "" #: src/async/futures.md:32 msgid "" "The `Future` and `Poll` types are implemented exactly as shown; click the " "links to show the implementations in the docs." msgstr "" #: src/async/futures.md:35 msgid "" "We will not get to `Pin` and `Context`, as we will focus on writing async " "code, rather than building new async primitives. Briefly:" msgstr "" #: src/async/futures.md:38 msgid "" "`Context` allows a Future to schedule itself to be polled again when an " "event occurs." msgstr "" #: src/async/futures.md:41 msgid "" "`Pin` ensures that the Future isn't moved in memory, so that pointers into " "that future remain valid. This is required to allow references to remain " "valid after an `.await`." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes.md:3 msgid "" "A _runtime_ provides support for performing operations asynchronously (a " "_reactor_) and is responsible for executing futures (an _executor_). Rust " "does not have a \"built-in\" runtime, but several options are available:" msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes.md:7 msgid "" "[Tokio](https://tokio.rs/): performant, with a well-developed ecosystem of " "functionality like [Hyper](https://hyper.rs/) for HTTP or [Tonic](https://" "github.com/hyperium/tonic) for gRPC." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes.md:10 msgid "" "[async-std](https://async.rs/): aims to be a \"std for async\", and includes " "a basic runtime in `async::task`." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes.md:12 msgid "[smol](https://docs.rs/smol/latest/smol/): simple and lightweight" msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes.md:14 msgid "" "Several larger applications have their own runtimes. For example, [Fuchsia]" "(https://fuchsia.googlesource.com/fuchsia/+/refs/heads/main/src/lib/fuchsia-" "async/src/lib.rs) already has one." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes.md:20 msgid "" "Note that of the listed runtimes, only Tokio is supported in the Rust " "playground. The playground also does not permit any I/O, so most interesting " "async things can't run in the playground." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes.md:24 msgid "" "Futures are \"inert\" in that they do not do anything (not even start an I/O " "operation) unless there is an executor polling them. This differs from JS " "Promises, for example, which will run to completion even if they are never " "used." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:4 msgid "Tokio provides: " msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:6 msgid "A multi-threaded runtime for executing asynchronous code." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:7 msgid "An asynchronous version of the standard library." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:8 msgid "A large ecosystem of libraries." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:10 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use tokio::time;\n" "\n" "async fn count_to(count: i32) {\n" " for i in 1..=count {\n" " println!(\"Count in task: {i}!\");\n" " time::sleep(time::Duration::from_millis(5)).await;\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() {\n" " tokio::spawn(count_to(10));\n" "\n" " for i in 1..5 {\n" " println!(\"Main task: {i}\");\n" " time::sleep(time::Duration::from_millis(5)).await;\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:33 msgid "With the `tokio::main` macro we can now make `main` async." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:35 msgid "The `spawn` function creates a new, concurrent \"task\"." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:37 msgid "Note: `spawn` takes a `Future`, you don't call `.await` on `count_to`." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:39 msgid "**Further exploration:**" msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:41 msgid "" "Why does `count_to` not (usually) get to 10? This is an example of async " "cancellation. `tokio::spawn` returns a handle which can be awaited to wait " "until it finishes." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:45 msgid "Try `count_to(10).await` instead of spawning." msgstr "" #: src/async/runtimes/tokio.md:47 msgid "Try awaiting the task returned from `tokio::spawn`." msgstr "" #: src/async/tasks.md:3 msgid "Rust has a task system, which is a form of lightweight threading." msgstr "" #: src/async/tasks.md:5 msgid "" "A task has a single top-level future which the executor polls to make " "progress. That future may have one or more nested futures that its `poll` " "method polls, corresponding loosely to a call stack. Concurrency within a " "task is possible by polling multiple child futures, such as racing a timer " "and an I/O operation." msgstr "" #: src/async/tasks.md:10 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "use tokio::io::{self, AsyncReadExt, AsyncWriteExt};\n" "use tokio::net::TcpListener;\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() -> io::Result<()> {\n" " let listener = TcpListener::bind(\"127.0.0.1:6142\").await?;\n" "\tprintln!(\"listening on port 6142\");\n" "\n" " loop {\n" " let (mut socket, addr) = listener.accept().await?;\n" "\n" " println!(\"connection from {addr:?}\");\n" "\n" " tokio::spawn(async move {\n" " if let Err(e) = socket.write_all(b\"Who are you?\\n\").await {\n" " println!(\"socket error: {e:?}\");\n" " return;\n" " }\n" "\n" " let mut buf = vec![0; 1024];\n" " let reply = match socket.read(&mut buf).await {\n" " Ok(n) => {\n" " let name = std::str::from_utf8(&buf[..n]).unwrap()." "trim();\n" " format!(\"Thanks for dialing in, {name}!\\n\")\n" " }\n" " Err(e) => {\n" " println!(\"socket error: {e:?}\");\n" " return;\n" " }\n" " };\n" "\n" " if let Err(e) = socket.write_all(reply.as_bytes()).await {\n" " println!(\"socket error: {e:?}\");\n" " }\n" " });\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/tasks.md:52 src/async/control-flow/join.md:36 msgid "" "Copy this example into your prepared `src/main.rs` and run it from there." msgstr "" #: src/async/tasks.md:54 msgid "" "Ask students to visualize what the state of the example server would be with " "a few connected clients. What tasks exist? What are their Futures?" msgstr "" #: src/async/tasks.md:57 msgid "" "This is the first time we've seen an `async` block. This is similar to a " "closure, but does not take any arguments. Its return value is a Future, " "similar to an `async fn`. " msgstr "" #: src/async/tasks.md:61 msgid "" "Refactor the async block into a function, and improve the error handling " "using `?`." msgstr "" #: src/async/channels.md:3 msgid "" "Several crates have support for asynchronous channels. For instance `tokio`:" msgstr "" #: src/async/channels.md:5 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use tokio::sync::mpsc::{self, Receiver};\n" "\n" "async fn ping_handler(mut input: Receiver<()>) {\n" " let mut count: usize = 0;\n" "\n" " while let Some(_) = input.recv().await {\n" " count += 1;\n" " println!(\"Received {count} pings so far.\");\n" " }\n" "\n" " println!(\"ping_handler complete\");\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() {\n" " let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(32);\n" " let ping_handler_task = tokio::spawn(ping_handler(receiver));\n" " for i in 0..10 {\n" " sender.send(()).await.expect(\"Failed to send ping.\");\n" " println!(\"Sent {} pings so far.\", i + 1);\n" " }\n" "\n" " drop(sender);\n" " ping_handler_task.await.expect(\"Something went wrong in ping handler " "task.\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/channels.md:35 msgid "Change the channel size to `3` and see how it affects the execution." msgstr "" #: src/async/channels.md:37 msgid "" "Overall, the interface is similar to the `sync` channels as seen in the " "[morning class](concurrency/channels.md)." msgstr "" #: src/async/channels.md:40 msgid "Try removing the `std::mem::drop` call. What happens? Why?" msgstr "" #: src/async/channels.md:42 msgid "" "The [Flume](https://docs.rs/flume/latest/flume/) crate has channels that " "implement both `sync` and `async` `send` and `recv`. This can be convenient " "for complex applications with both IO and heavy CPU processing tasks." msgstr "" #: src/async/channels.md:46 msgid "" "What makes working with `async` channels preferable is the ability to " "combine them with other `future`s to combine them and create complex control " "flow." msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow.md:1 msgid "Futures Control Flow" msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow.md:3 msgid "" "Futures can be combined together to produce concurrent compute flow graphs. " "We have already seen tasks, that function as independent threads of " "execution." msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow.md:6 msgid "[Join](control-flow/join.md)" msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow.md:7 msgid "[Select](control-flow/select.md)" msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/join.md:3 msgid "" "A join operation waits until all of a set of futures are ready, and returns " "a collection of their results. This is similar to `Promise.all` in " "JavaScript or `asyncio.gather` in Python." msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/join.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use anyhow::Result;\n" "use futures::future;\n" "use reqwest;\n" "use std::collections::HashMap;\n" "\n" "async fn size_of_page(url: &str) -> Result {\n" " let resp = reqwest::get(url).await?;\n" " Ok(resp.text().await?.len())\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() {\n" " let urls: [&str; 4] = [\n" " \"https://google.com\",\n" " \"https://httpbin.org/ip\",\n" " \"https://play.rust-lang.org/\",\n" " \"BAD_URL\",\n" " ];\n" " let futures_iter = urls.into_iter().map(size_of_page);\n" " let results = future::join_all(futures_iter).await;\n" " let page_sizes_dict: HashMap<&str, Result> =\n" " urls.into_iter().zip(results.into_iter()).collect();\n" " println!(\"{:?}\", page_sizes_dict);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/join.md:38 msgid "" "For multiple futures of disjoint types, you can use `std::future::join!` but " "you must know how many futures you will have at compile time. This is " "currently in the `futures` crate, soon to be stabilised in `std::future`." msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/join.md:42 msgid "" "The risk of `join` is that one of the futures may never resolve, this would " "cause your program to stall. " msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/join.md:45 msgid "" "You can also combine `join_all` with `join!` for instance to join all " "requests to an http service as well as a database query. Try adding a " "`tokio::time::sleep` to the future, using `futures::join!`. This is not a " "timeout (that requires `select!`, explained in the next chapter), but " "demonstrates `join!`." msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/select.md:3 msgid "" "A select operation waits until any of a set of futures is ready, and " "responds to that future's result. In JavaScript, this is similar to `Promise." "race`. In Python, it compares to `asyncio.wait(task_set, return_when=asyncio." "FIRST_COMPLETED)`." msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/select.md:8 msgid "" "Similar to a match statement, the body of `select!` has a number of arms, " "each of the form `pattern = future => statement`. When the `future` is " "ready, the `statement` is executed with the variables in `pattern` bound to " "the `future`'s result." msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/select.md:13 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use tokio::sync::mpsc::{self, Receiver};\n" "use tokio::time::{sleep, Duration};\n" "\n" "#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]\n" "enum Animal {\n" " Cat { name: String },\n" " Dog { name: String },\n" "}\n" "\n" "async fn first_animal_to_finish_race(\n" " mut cat_rcv: Receiver,\n" " mut dog_rcv: Receiver,\n" ") -> Option {\n" " tokio::select! {\n" " cat_name = cat_rcv.recv() => Some(Animal::Cat { name: cat_name? }),\n" " dog_name = dog_rcv.recv() => Some(Animal::Dog { name: dog_name? })\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() {\n" " let (cat_sender, cat_receiver) = mpsc::channel(32);\n" " let (dog_sender, dog_receiver) = mpsc::channel(32);\n" " tokio::spawn(async move {\n" " sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await;\n" " cat_sender\n" " .send(String::from(\"Felix\"))\n" " .await\n" " .expect(\"Failed to send cat.\");\n" " });\n" " tokio::spawn(async move {\n" " sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await;\n" " dog_sender\n" " .send(String::from(\"Rex\"))\n" " .await\n" " .expect(\"Failed to send dog.\");\n" " });\n" "\n" " let winner = first_animal_to_finish_race(cat_receiver, dog_receiver)\n" " .await\n" " .expect(\"Failed to receive winner\");\n" "\n" " println!(\"Winner is {winner:?}\");\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/select.md:62 msgid "" "In this example, we have a race between a cat and a dog. " "`first_animal_to_finish_race` listens to both channels and will pick " "whichever arrives first. Since the dog takes 50ms, it wins against the cat " "that take 500ms seconds." msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/select.md:67 msgid "" "You can use `oneshot` channels in this example as the channels are supposed " "to receive only one `send`." msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/select.md:70 msgid "" "Try adding a deadline to the race, demonstrating selecting different sorts " "of futures." msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/select.md:73 msgid "" "Note that `select!` drops unmatched branches, which cancels their futures. " "It is easiest to use when every execution of `select!` creates new futures." msgstr "" #: src/async/control-flow/select.md:76 msgid "" "An alternative is to pass `&mut future` instead of the future itself, but " "this can lead to issues, further discussed in the pinning slide." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls.md:1 msgid "Pitfalls of async/await" msgstr "Faldgruber ved async/await" #: src/async/pitfalls.md:3 msgid "" "Async / await provides convenient and efficient abstraction for concurrent " "asynchronous programming. However, the async/await model in Rust also comes " "with its share of pitfalls and footguns. We illustrate some of them in this " "chapter:" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls.md:5 msgid "[Blocking the Executor](pitfalls/blocking-executor.md)" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls.md:6 msgid "[Pin](pitfalls/pin.md)" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls.md:7 msgid "[Async Traits](pitfalls/async-traits.md)" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls.md:8 msgid "[Cancellation](pitfalls/cancellation.md)" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/blocking-executor.md:1 msgid "Blocking the executor" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/blocking-executor.md:3 msgid "" "Most async runtimes only allow IO tasks to run concurrently. This means that " "CPU blocking tasks will block the executor and prevent other tasks from " "being executed. An easy workaround is to use async equivalent methods where " "possible." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/blocking-executor.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use futures::future::join_all;\n" "use std::time::Instant;\n" "\n" "async fn sleep_ms(start: &Instant, id: u64, duration_ms: u64) {\n" " std::thread::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(duration_ms));\n" " println!(\n" " \"future {id} slept for {duration_ms}ms, finished after {}ms\",\n" " start.elapsed().as_millis()\n" " );\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main(flavor = \"current_thread\")]\n" "async fn main() {\n" " let start = Instant::now();\n" " let sleep_futures = (1..=10).map(|t| sleep_ms(&start, t, t * 10));\n" " join_all(sleep_futures).await;\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/blocking-executor.md:29 msgid "" "Run the code and see that the sleeps happen consecutively rather than " "concurrently." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/blocking-executor.md:32 msgid "" "The `\"current_thread\"` flavor puts all tasks on a single thread. This " "makes the effect more obvious, but the bug is still present in the multi-" "threaded flavor." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/blocking-executor.md:36 msgid "" "Switch the `std::thread::sleep` to `tokio::time::sleep` and await its result." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/blocking-executor.md:38 msgid "" "Another fix would be to `tokio::task::spawn_blocking` which spawns an actual " "thread and transforms its handle into a future without blocking the executor." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/blocking-executor.md:41 msgid "" "You should not think of tasks as OS threads. They do not map 1 to 1 and most " "executors will allow many tasks to run on a single OS thread. This is " "particularly problematic when interacting with other libraries via FFI, " "where that library might depend on thread-local storage or map to specific " "OS threads (e.g., CUDA). Prefer `tokio::task::spawn_blocking` in such " "situations." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/blocking-executor.md:47 msgid "" "Use sync mutexes with care. Holding a mutex over an `.await` may cause " "another task to block, and that task may be running on the same thread." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:3 msgid "" "When you await a future, all local variables (that would ordinarily be " "stored on a stack frame) are instead stored in the Future for the current " "async block. If your future has pointers to data on the stack, those " "pointers might get invalidated. This is unsafe." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:8 msgid "" "Therefore, you must guarantee that the addresses your future points to don't " "change. That is why we need to `pin` futures. Using the same future " "repeatedly in a `select!` often leads to issues with pinned values." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:12 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use tokio::sync::{mpsc, oneshot};\n" "use tokio::task::spawn;\n" "use tokio::time::{sleep, Duration};\n" "\n" "// A work item. In this case, just sleep for the given time and respond\n" "// with a message on the `respond_on` channel.\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct Work {\n" " input: u32,\n" " respond_on: oneshot::Sender,\n" "}\n" "\n" "// A worker which listens for work on a queue and performs it.\n" "async fn worker(mut work_queue: mpsc::Receiver) {\n" " let mut iterations = 0;\n" " loop {\n" " tokio::select! {\n" " Some(work) = work_queue.recv() => {\n" " sleep(Duration::from_millis(10)).await; // Pretend to work.\n" " work.respond_on\n" " .send(work.input * 1000)\n" " .expect(\"failed to send response\");\n" " iterations += 1;\n" " }\n" " // TODO: report number of iterations every 100ms\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// A requester which requests work and waits for it to complete.\n" "async fn do_work(work_queue: &mpsc::Sender, input: u32) -> u32 {\n" " let (tx, rx) = oneshot::channel();\n" " work_queue\n" " .send(Work {\n" " input,\n" " respond_on: tx,\n" " })\n" " .await\n" " .expect(\"failed to send on work queue\");\n" " rx.await.expect(\"failed waiting for response\")\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() {\n" " let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel(10);\n" " spawn(worker(rx));\n" " for i in 0..100 {\n" " let resp = do_work(&tx, i).await;\n" " println!(\"work result for iteration {i}: {resp}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:68 msgid "" "You may recognize this as an example of the actor pattern. Actors typically " "call `select!` in a loop." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:71 msgid "" "This serves as a summation of a few of the previous lessons, so take your " "time with it." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:74 msgid "" "Naively add a `_ = sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)) => { println!(..) }` to " "the `select!`. This will never execute. Why?" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:77 msgid "" "Instead, add a `timeout_fut` containing that future outside of the `loop`:" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:79 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "let mut timeout_fut = sleep(Duration::from_millis(100));\n" "loop {\n" " select! {\n" " ..,\n" " _ = timeout_fut => { println!(..); },\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:88 msgid "" "This still doesn't work. Follow the compiler errors, adding `&mut` to the " "`timeout_fut` in the `select!` to work around the move, then using `Box::" "pin`:" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:92 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "let mut timeout_fut = Box::pin(sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)));\n" "loop {\n" " select! {\n" " ..,\n" " _ = &mut timeout_fut => { println!(..); },\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:102 msgid "" "This compiles, but once the timeout expires it is `Poll::Ready` on every " "iteration (a fused future would help with this). Update to reset " "`timeout_fut` every time it expires." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:106 msgid "" "Box allocates on the heap. In some cases, `std::pin::pin!` (only recently " "stabilized, with older code often using `tokio::pin!`) is also an option, " "but that is difficult to use for a future that is reassigned." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/pin.md:110 msgid "" "Another alternative is to not use `pin` at all but spawn another task that " "will send to a `oneshot` channel every 100ms." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/async-traits.md:3 msgid "" "Async methods in traits are not yet supported in the stable channel ([An " "experimental feature exists in nightly and should be stabilized in the mid " "term.](https://blog.rust-lang.org/inside-rust/2022/11/17/async-fn-in-trait-" "nightly.html))" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/async-traits.md:5 msgid "" "The crate [async_trait](https://docs.rs/async-trait/latest/async_trait/) " "provides a workaround through a macro:" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/async-traits.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use async_trait::async_trait;\n" "use std::time::Instant;\n" "use tokio::time::{sleep, Duration};\n" "\n" "#[async_trait]\n" "trait Sleeper {\n" " async fn sleep(&self);\n" "}\n" "\n" "struct FixedSleeper {\n" " sleep_ms: u64,\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[async_trait]\n" "impl Sleeper for FixedSleeper {\n" " async fn sleep(&self) {\n" " sleep(Duration::from_millis(self.sleep_ms)).await;\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "async fn run_all_sleepers_multiple_times(sleepers: Vec>, " "n_times: usize) {\n" " for _ in 0..n_times {\n" " println!(\"running all sleepers..\");\n" " for sleeper in &sleepers {\n" " let start = Instant::now();\n" " sleeper.sleep().await;\n" " println!(\"slept for {}ms\", start.elapsed().as_millis());\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() {\n" " let sleepers: Vec> = vec![\n" " Box::new(FixedSleeper { sleep_ms: 50 }),\n" " Box::new(FixedSleeper { sleep_ms: 100 }),\n" " ];\n" " run_all_sleepers_multiple_times(sleepers, 5).await;\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/async-traits.md:51 msgid "" "`async_trait` is easy to use, but note that it's using heap allocations to " "achieve this. This heap allocation has performance overhead." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/async-traits.md:54 msgid "" "The challenges in language support for `async trait` are deep Rust and " "probably not worth describing in-depth. Niko Matsakis did a good job of " "explaining them in [this post](https://smallcultfollowing.com/babysteps/" "blog/2019/10/26/async-fn-in-traits-are-hard/) if you are interested in " "digging deeper." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/async-traits.md:60 msgid "" "Try creating a new sleeper struct that will sleep for a random amount of " "time and adding it to the Vec." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/cancellation.md:3 msgid "" "Dropping a future implies it can never be polled again. This is called " "_cancellation_ and it can occur at any `await` point. Care is needed to " "ensure the system works correctly even when futures are cancelled. For " "example, it shouldn't deadlock or lose data." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/cancellation.md:8 msgid "" "```rust,editable,compile_fail\n" "use std::io::{self, ErrorKind};\n" "use std::time::Duration;\n" "use tokio::io::{AsyncReadExt, AsyncWriteExt, DuplexStream};\n" "\n" "struct LinesReader {\n" " stream: DuplexStream,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl LinesReader {\n" " fn new(stream: DuplexStream) -> Self {\n" " Self { stream }\n" " }\n" "\n" " async fn next(&mut self) -> io::Result> {\n" " let mut bytes = Vec::new();\n" " let mut buf = [0];\n" " while self.stream.read(&mut buf[..]).await? != 0 {\n" " bytes.push(buf[0]);\n" " if buf[0] == b'\\n' {\n" " break;\n" " }\n" " }\n" " if bytes.is_empty() {\n" " return Ok(None)\n" " }\n" " let s = String::from_utf8(bytes)\n" " .map_err(|_| io::Error::new(ErrorKind::InvalidData, \"not " "UTF-8\"))?;\n" " Ok(Some(s))\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "async fn slow_copy(source: String, mut dest: DuplexStream) -> std::io::" "Result<()> {\n" " for b in source.bytes() {\n" " dest.write_u8(b).await?;\n" " tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(10)).await\n" " }\n" " Ok(())\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() -> std::io::Result<()> {\n" " let (client, server) = tokio::io::duplex(5);\n" " let handle = tokio::spawn(slow_copy(\"hi\\nthere\\n\".to_owned(), " "client));\n" "\n" " let mut lines = LinesReader::new(server);\n" " let mut interval = tokio::time::interval(Duration::from_millis(60));\n" " loop {\n" " tokio::select! {\n" " _ = interval.tick() => println!(\"tick!\"),\n" " line = lines.next() => if let Some(l) = line? {\n" " print!(\"{}\", l)\n" " } else {\n" " break\n" " },\n" " }\n" " }\n" " handle.await.unwrap()?;\n" " Ok(())\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/cancellation.md:72 msgid "" "The compiler doesn't help with cancellation-safety. You need to read API " "documentation and consider what state your `async fn` holds." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/cancellation.md:75 msgid "" "Unlike `panic` and `?`, cancellation is part of normal control flow (vs " "error-handling)." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/cancellation.md:78 msgid "The example loses parts of the string." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/cancellation.md:80 msgid "" "Whenever the `tick()` branch finishes first, `next()` and its `buf` are " "dropped." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/cancellation.md:82 msgid "" "`LinesReader` can be made cancellation-safe by makeing `buf` part of the " "struct:" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/cancellation.md:83 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "struct LinesReader {\n" " stream: DuplexStream,\n" " bytes: Vec,\n" " buf: [u8; 1],\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl LinesReader {\n" " fn new(stream: DuplexStream) -> Self {\n" " Self { stream, bytes: Vec::new(), buf: [0] }\n" " }\n" " async fn next(&mut self) -> io::Result> {\n" " // prefix buf and bytes with self.\n" " // ...\n" " let raw = std::mem::take(&mut self.bytes);\n" " let s = String::from_utf8(raw)\n" " // ...\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/cancellation.md:104 msgid "" "[`Interval::tick`](https://docs.rs/tokio/latest/tokio/time/struct.Interval." "html#method.tick) is cancellation-safe because it keeps track of whether a " "tick has been 'delivered'." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/cancellation.md:107 msgid "" "[`AsyncReadExt::read`](https://docs.rs/tokio/latest/tokio/io/trait." "AsyncReadExt.html#method.read) is cancellation-safe because it either " "returns or doesn't read data." msgstr "" #: src/async/pitfalls/cancellation.md:110 msgid "" "[`AsyncBufReadExt::read_line`](https://docs.rs/tokio/latest/tokio/io/trait." "AsyncBufReadExt.html#method.read_line) is similar to the example and _isn't_ " "cancellation-safe. See its documentation for details and alternatives." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/afternoon.md:3 msgid "" "To practice your Async Rust skills, we have again two exercises for you:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/afternoon.md:5 msgid "" "Dining philosophers: we already saw this problem in the morning. This time " "you are going to implement it with Async Rust." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/afternoon.md:8 msgid "" "A Broadcast Chat Application: this is a larger project that allows you " "experiment with more advanced Async Rust features." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers-async.md:1 #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-afternoon.md:3 msgid "Dining Philosophers - Async" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers-async.md:3 msgid "" "See [dining philosophers](dining-philosophers.md) for a description of the " "problem." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers-async.md:6 msgid "" "As before, you will need a local [Cargo installation](../../cargo/running-" "locally.md) for this exercise. Copy the code below to a file called `src/" "main.rs`, fill out the blanks, and test that `cargo run` does not deadlock:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers-async.md:13 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "use std::sync::Arc;\n" "use tokio::time;\n" "use tokio::sync::mpsc::{self, Sender};\n" "use tokio::sync::Mutex;\n" "\n" "struct Fork;\n" "\n" "struct Philosopher {\n" " name: String,\n" " // left_fork: ...\n" " // right_fork: ...\n" " // thoughts: ...\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Philosopher {\n" " async fn think(&self) {\n" " self.thoughts\n" " .send(format!(\"Eureka! {} has a new idea!\", &self.name))." "await\n" " .unwrap();\n" " }\n" "\n" " async fn eat(&self) {\n" " // Pick up forks...\n" " println!(\"{} is eating...\", &self.name);\n" " time::sleep(time::Duration::from_millis(5)).await;\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "static PHILOSOPHERS: &[&str] =\n" " &[\"Socrates\", \"Plato\", \"Aristotle\", \"Thales\", \"Pythagoras\"];\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() {\n" " // Create forks\n" "\n" " // Create philosophers\n" "\n" " // Make them think and eat\n" "\n" " // Output their thoughts\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers-async.md:57 msgid "" "Since this time you are using Async Rust, you'll need a `tokio` dependency. " "You can use the following `Cargo.toml`:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers-async.md:62 msgid "" "```toml\n" "[package]\n" "name = \"dining-philosophers-async-dine\"\n" "version = \"0.1.0\"\n" "edition = \"2021\"\n" "\n" "[dependencies]\n" "tokio = {version = \"1.26.0\", features = [\"sync\", \"time\", \"macros\", " "\"rt-multi-thread\"]}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers-async.md:72 msgid "" "Also note that this time you have to use the `Mutex` and the `mpsc` module " "from the `tokio` crate." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/dining-philosophers-async.md:77 msgid "Can you make your implementation single-threaded? " msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:3 msgid "" "In this exercise, we want to use our new knowledge to implement a broadcast " "chat application. We have a chat server that the clients connect to and " "publish their messages. The client reads user messages from the standard " "input, and sends them to the server. The chat server broadcasts each message " "that it receives to all the clients." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:9 msgid "" "For this, we use [a broadcast channel](https://docs.rs/tokio/latest/tokio/" "sync/broadcast/fn.channel.html) on the server, and [`tokio_websockets`]" "(https://docs.rs/tokio-websockets/0.3.2/tokio_websockets/) for the " "communication between the client and the server." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:13 msgid "Create a new Cargo project and add the following dependencies:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:15 msgid "`Cargo.toml`:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:19 msgid "" "```toml\n" "[package]\n" "name = \"chat-async\"\n" "version = \"0.1.0\"\n" "edition = \"2021\"\n" "\n" "[dependencies]\n" "futures-util = \"0.3.28\"\n" "http = \"0.2.9\"\n" "tokio = { version = \"1.28.1\", features = [\"full\"] }\n" "tokio-websockets = \"0.3.2\"\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:32 msgid "The required APIs" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:33 msgid "" "You are going to need the following functions from `tokio` and " "[`tokio_websockets`](https://docs.rs/tokio-websockets/0.3.2/" "tokio_websockets/). Spend a few minutes to familiarize yourself with the " "API. " msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:37 msgid "" "[WebsocketStream::next()](https://docs.rs/tokio-websockets/0.3.2/" "tokio_websockets/proto/struct.WebsocketStream.html#method.next): for " "asynchronously reading messages from a Websocket Stream." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:39 msgid "" "[SinkExt::send()](https://docs.rs/futures-util/0.3.28/futures_util/sink/" "trait.SinkExt.html#method.send) implemented by `WebsocketStream`: for " "asynchronously sending messages on a Websocket Stream." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:41 msgid "" "[Lines::next_line()](https://docs.rs/tokio/latest/tokio/io/struct.Lines." "html#method.next_line): for asynchronously reading user messages from the " "standard input." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:43 msgid "" "[Sender::subscribe()](https://docs.rs/tokio/latest/tokio/sync/broadcast/" "struct.Sender.html#method.subscribe): for subscribing to a broadcast channel." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:46 msgid "Two binaries" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:48 msgid "" "Normally in a Cargo project, you can have only one binary, and one `src/main." "rs` file. In this project, we need two binaries. One for the client, and one " "for the server. You could potentially make them two separate Cargo projects, " "but we are going to put them in a single Cargo project with two binaries. " "For this to work, the client and the server code should go under `src/bin` " "(see the [documentation](https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/cargo-" "targets.html#binaries)). " msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:55 msgid "" "Copy the following server and client code into `src/bin/server.rs` and `src/" "bin/client.rs`, respectively. Your task is to complete these files as " "described below. " msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:59 #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-afternoon.md:123 #, fuzzy msgid "`src/bin/server.rs`:" msgstr "`src/main.rs`:" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:63 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "use futures_util::sink::SinkExt;\n" "use std::error::Error;\n" "use std::net::SocketAddr;\n" "use tokio::net::{TcpListener, TcpStream};\n" "use tokio::sync::broadcast::{channel, Sender};\n" "use tokio_websockets::{Message, ServerBuilder, WebsocketStream};\n" "\n" "async fn handle_connection(\n" " addr: SocketAddr,\n" " mut ws_stream: WebsocketStream,\n" " bcast_tx: Sender,\n" ") -> Result<(), Box> {\n" "\n" " // TODO: For a hint, see the description of the task below.\n" "\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() -> Result<(), Box> {\n" " let (bcast_tx, _) = channel(16);\n" "\n" " let listener = TcpListener::bind(\"127.0.0.1:2000\").await?;\n" " println!(\"listening on port 2000\");\n" "\n" " loop {\n" " let (socket, addr) = listener.accept().await?;\n" " println!(\"New connection from {addr:?}\");\n" " let bcast_tx = bcast_tx.clone();\n" " tokio::spawn(async move {\n" " // Wrap the raw TCP stream into a websocket.\n" " let ws_stream = ServerBuilder::new().accept(socket).await?;\n" "\n" " handle_connection(addr, ws_stream, bcast_tx).await\n" " });\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:102 #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-afternoon.md:208 #, fuzzy msgid "`src/bin/client.rs`:" msgstr "`src/main.rs`:" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:106 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "use futures_util::SinkExt;\n" "use http::Uri;\n" "use tokio::io::{AsyncBufReadExt, BufReader};\n" "use tokio_websockets::{ClientBuilder, Message};\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() -> Result<(), tokio_websockets::Error> {\n" " let mut ws_stream = ClientBuilder::from_uri(Uri::" "from_static(\"ws://127.0.0.1:2000\"))\n" " .connect()\n" " .await?;\n" "\n" " let stdin = tokio::io::stdin();\n" " let mut stdin = BufReader::new(stdin).lines();\n" "\n" "\n" " // TODO: For a hint, see the description of the task below.\n" "\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:127 #, fuzzy msgid "Running the binaries" msgstr "Afvikling af kurset" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:128 msgid "Run the server with:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:130 msgid "" "```shell\n" "cargo run --bin server\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:134 msgid "and the client with:" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:136 msgid "" "```shell\n" "cargo run --bin client\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:142 msgid "Implement the `handle_connection` function in `src/bin/server.rs`." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:143 msgid "" "Hint: Use `tokio::select!` for concurrently performing two tasks in a " "continuous loop. One task receives messages from the client and broadcasts " "them. The other sends messages received by the server to the client." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:146 msgid "Complete the main function in `src/bin/client.rs`." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:147 msgid "" "Hint: As before, use `tokio::select!` in a continuous loop for concurrently " "performing two tasks: (1) reading user messages from standard input and " "sending them to the server, and (2) receiving messages from the server, and " "displaying them for the user." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/chat-app.md:151 msgid "" "Optional: Once you are done, change the code to broadcast messages to all " "clients, but the sender of the message." msgstr "" #: src/thanks.md:3 msgid "" "_Thank you for taking Comprehensive Rust 🦀!_ We hope you enjoyed it and " "that it was useful." msgstr "" "_Tak for at tage Comprehensive Rust 🦀!_ Vi håber du har nydt det og at det " "har været hjælpsomt." #: src/thanks.md:6 msgid "" "We've had a lot of fun putting the course together. The course is not " "perfect, so if you spotted any mistakes or have ideas for improvements, " "please get in [contact with us on GitHub](https://github.com/google/" "comprehensive-rust/discussions). We would love to hear from you." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:1 msgid "Other Rust Resources" msgstr "Andre Rust-resourcer" #: src/other-resources.md:3 msgid "" "The Rust community has created a wealth of high-quality and free resources " "online." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:6 msgid "Official Documentation" msgstr "Officiel dokumentation" #: src/other-resources.md:8 msgid "The Rust project hosts many resources. These cover Rust in general:" msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:10 msgid "" "[The Rust Programming Language](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/): the " "canonical free book about Rust. Covers the language in detail and includes a " "few projects for people to build." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:13 msgid "" "[Rust By Example](https://doc.rust-lang.org/rust-by-example/): covers the " "Rust syntax via a series of examples which showcase different constructs. " "Sometimes includes small exercises where you are asked to expand on the code " "in the examples." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:17 msgid "" "[Rust Standard Library](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/): full documentation " "of the standard library for Rust." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:19 msgid "" "[The Rust Reference](https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/): an incomplete " "book which describes the Rust grammar and memory model." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:22 msgid "More specialized guides hosted on the official Rust site:" msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:24 msgid "" "[The Rustonomicon](https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/): covers unsafe Rust, " "including working with raw pointers and interfacing with other languages " "(FFI)." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:27 msgid "" "[Asynchronous Programming in Rust](https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/): " "covers the new asynchronous programming model which was introduced after the " "Rust Book was written." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:30 msgid "" "[The Embedded Rust Book](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/embedded-book/): " "an introduction to using Rust on embedded devices without an operating " "system." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:33 msgid "Unofficial Learning Material" msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:35 msgid "A small selection of other guides and tutorial for Rust:" msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:37 msgid "" "[Learn Rust the Dangerous Way](http://cliffle.com/p/dangerust/): covers Rust " "from the perspective of low-level C programmers." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:39 msgid "" "[Rust for Embedded C Programmers](https://docs.opentitan.org/doc/ug/" "rust_for_c/): covers Rust from the perspective of developers who write " "firmware in C." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:42 msgid "" "[Rust for professionals](https://overexact.com/rust-for-professionals/): " "covers the syntax of Rust using side-by-side comparisons with other " "languages such as C, C++, Java, JavaScript, and Python." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:45 msgid "" "[Rust on Exercism](https://exercism.org/tracks/rust): 100+ exercises to help " "you learn Rust." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:47 msgid "" "[Ferrous Teaching Material](https://ferrous-systems.github.io/teaching-" "material/index.html): a series of small presentations covering both basic " "and advanced part of the Rust language. Other topics such as WebAssembly, " "and async/await are also covered." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:52 msgid "" "[Beginner's Series to Rust](https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/shows/beginners-" "series-to-rust/) and [Take your first steps with Rust](https://docs." "microsoft.com/en-us/learn/paths/rust-first-steps/): two Rust guides aimed at " "new developers. The first is a set of 35 videos and the second is a set of " "11 modules which covers Rust syntax and basic constructs." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:58 msgid "" "[Learn Rust With Entirely Too Many Linked Lists](https://rust-unofficial." "github.io/too-many-lists/): in-depth exploration of Rust's memory management " "rules, through implementing a few different types of list structures." msgstr "" #: src/other-resources.md:63 msgid "" "Please see the [Little Book of Rust Books](https://lborb.github.io/book/) " "for even more Rust books." msgstr "" #: src/credits.md:3 msgid "" "The material here builds on top of the many great sources of Rust " "documentation. See the page on [other resources](other-resources.md) for a " "full list of useful resources." msgstr "" #: src/credits.md:7 msgid "" "The material of Comprehensive Rust is licensed under the terms of the Apache " "2.0 license, please see [`LICENSE`](https://github.com/google/comprehensive-" "rust/blob/main/LICENSE) for details." msgstr "" #: src/credits.md:12 msgid "Rust by Example" msgstr "Rust by Example" #: src/credits.md:14 msgid "" "Some examples and exercises have been copied and adapted from [Rust by " "Example](https://doc.rust-lang.org/rust-by-example/). Please see the " "`third_party/rust-by-example/` directory for details, including the license " "terms." msgstr "" #: src/credits.md:19 msgid "Rust on Exercism" msgstr "Rust på Exercism" #: src/credits.md:21 msgid "" "Some exercises have been copied and adapted from [Rust on Exercism](https://" "exercism.org/tracks/rust). Please see the `third_party/rust-on-exercism/` " "directory for details, including the license terms." msgstr "" #: src/credits.md:26 msgid "CXX" msgstr "CXX" #: src/credits.md:28 msgid "" "The [Interoperability with C++](android/interoperability/cpp.md) section " "uses an image from [CXX](https://cxx.rs/). Please see the `third_party/cxx/` " "directory for details, including the license terms." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/solutions.md:3 msgid "You will find solutions to the exercises on the following pages." msgstr "Du til finde løsningerne til opgaverne på de næste sider." #: src/exercises/solutions.md:5 msgid "" "Feel free to ask questions about the solutions [on GitHub](https://github." "com/google/comprehensive-rust/discussions). Let us know if you have a " "different or better solution than what is presented here." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/solutions.md:10 msgid "" "**Note:** Please ignore the `// ANCHOR: label` and `// ANCHOR_END: label` " "comments you see in the solutions. They are there to make it possible to re-" "use parts of the solutions as the exercises." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-morning.md:1 msgid "Day 1 Morning Exercises" msgstr "Dag 1 formiddagsøvelser" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-morning.md:5 msgid "([back to exercise](for-loops.md))" msgstr "([tilbage til øvelsen](for-loops.md))" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-morning.md:7 msgid "" "```rust\n" "// Copyright 2022 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: transpose\n" "fn transpose(matrix: [[i32; 3]; 3]) -> [[i32; 3]; 3] {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: transpose\n" " let mut result = [[0; 3]; 3];\n" " for i in 0..3 {\n" " for j in 0..3 {\n" " result[j][i] = matrix[i][j];\n" " }\n" " }\n" " return result;\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: pretty_print\n" "fn pretty_print(matrix: &[[i32; 3]; 3]) {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: pretty_print\n" " for row in matrix {\n" " println!(\"{row:?}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: tests\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_transpose() {\n" " let matrix = [\n" " [101, 102, 103], //\n" " [201, 202, 203],\n" " [301, 302, 303],\n" " ];\n" " let transposed = transpose(matrix);\n" " assert_eq!(\n" " transposed,\n" " [\n" " [101, 201, 301], //\n" " [102, 202, 302],\n" " [103, 203, 303],\n" " ]\n" " );\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: tests\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: main\n" "fn main() {\n" " let matrix = [\n" " [101, 102, 103], // <-- the comment makes rustfmt add a newline\n" " [201, 202, 203],\n" " [301, 302, 303],\n" " ];\n" "\n" " println!(\"matrix:\");\n" " pretty_print(&matrix);\n" "\n" " let transposed = transpose(matrix);\n" " println!(\"transposed:\");\n" " pretty_print(&transposed);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-morning.md:78 msgid "Bonus question" msgstr "Bonusspørgsmål" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-morning.md:80 msgid "" "It requires more advanced concepts. It might seem that we could use a slice-" "of-slices (`&[&[i32]]`) as the input type to transpose and thus make our " "function handle any size of matrix. However, this quickly breaks down: the " "return type cannot be `&[&[i32]]` since it needs to own the data you return." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-morning.md:82 msgid "" "You can attempt to use something like `Vec>`, but this doesn't work " "out-of-the-box either: it's hard to convert from `Vec>` to " "`&[&[i32]]` so now you cannot easily use `pretty_print` either." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-morning.md:84 msgid "" "Once we get to traits and generics, we'll be able to use the [`std::convert::" "AsRef`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/trait.AsRef.html) trait to " "abstract over anything that can be referenced as a slice." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-morning.md:86 msgid "" "```rust\n" "use std::convert::AsRef;\n" "use std::fmt::Debug;\n" "\n" "fn pretty_print(matrix: Matrix)\n" "where\n" " T: Debug,\n" " // A line references a slice of items\n" " Line: AsRef<[T]>,\n" " // A matrix references a slice of lines\n" " Matrix: AsRef<[Line]>\n" "{\n" " for row in matrix.as_ref() {\n" " println!(\"{:?}\", row.as_ref());\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " // &[&[i32]]\n" " pretty_print(&[&[1, 2, 3], &[4, 5, 6], &[7, 8, 9]]);\n" " // [[&str; 2]; 2]\n" " pretty_print([[\"a\", \"b\"], [\"c\", \"d\"]]);\n" " // Vec>\n" " pretty_print(vec![vec![1, 2], vec![3, 4]]);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-morning.md:113 msgid "" "In addition, the type itself would not enforce that the child slices are of " "the same length, so such variable could contain an invalid matrix." msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-afternoon.md:1 msgid "Day 1 Afternoon Exercises" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-afternoon.md:3 msgid "Designing a Library" msgstr "Design af et bibliotek" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-afternoon.md:5 msgid "([back to exercise](book-library.md))" msgstr "([tilbage til øvelsen](book-library.md))" #: src/exercises/day-1/solutions-afternoon.md:7 msgid "" "```rust\n" "// Copyright 2022 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: setup\n" "struct Library {\n" " books: Vec,\n" "}\n" "\n" "struct Book {\n" " title: String,\n" " year: u16,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Book {\n" " // This is a constructor, used below.\n" " fn new(title: &str, year: u16) -> Book {\n" " Book {\n" " title: String::from(title),\n" " year,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// Implement the methods below. Update the `self` parameter to\n" "// indicate the method's required level of ownership over the object:\n" "//\n" "// - `&self` for shared read-only access,\n" "// - `&mut self` for unique and mutable access,\n" "// - `self` for unique access by value.\n" "impl Library {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: setup\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Library_new\n" " fn new() -> Library {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Library_new\n" " Library { books: Vec::new() }\n" " }\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Library_len\n" " //fn len(self) -> usize {\n" " // todo!(\"Return the length of `self.books`\")\n" " //}\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Library_len\n" " fn len(&self) -> usize {\n" " self.books.len()\n" " }\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Library_is_empty\n" " //fn is_empty(self) -> bool {\n" " // todo!(\"Return `true` if `self.books` is empty\")\n" " //}\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Library_is_empty\n" " fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {\n" " self.books.is_empty()\n" " }\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Library_add_book\n" " //fn add_book(self, book: Book) {\n" " // todo!(\"Add a new book to `self.books`\")\n" " //}\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Library_add_book\n" " fn add_book(&mut self, book: Book) {\n" " self.books.push(book)\n" " }\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Library_print_books\n" " //fn print_books(self) {\n" " // todo!(\"Iterate over `self.books` and each book's title and " "year\")\n" " //}\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Library_print_books\n" " fn print_books(&self) {\n" " for book in &self.books {\n" " println!(\"{}, published in {}\", book.title, book.year);\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Library_oldest_book\n" " //fn oldest_book(self) -> Option<&Book> {\n" " // todo!(\"Return a reference to the oldest book (if any)\")\n" " //}\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Library_oldest_book\n" " fn oldest_book(&self) -> Option<&Book> {\n" " // Using a closure and a built-in method:\n" " // self.books.iter().min_by_key(|book| book.year)\n" "\n" " // Longer hand-written solution:\n" " let mut oldest: Option<&Book> = None;\n" " for book in self.books.iter() {\n" " if oldest.is_none() || book.year < oldest.unwrap().year {\n" " oldest = Some(book);\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " oldest\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: main\n" "// This shows the desired behavior. Uncomment the code below and\n" "// implement the missing methods. You will need to update the\n" "// method signatures, including the \"self\" parameter! You may\n" "// also need to update the variable bindings within main.\n" "fn main() {\n" " let library = Library::new();\n" "\n" " //println!(\"The library is empty: library.is_empty() -> {}\", library." "is_empty());\n" " //\n" " //library.add_book(Book::new(\"Lord of the Rings\", 1954));\n" " //library.add_book(Book::new(\"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\", " "1865));\n" " //\n" " //println!(\"The library is no longer empty: library.is_empty() -> {}\", " "library.is_empty());\n" " //\n" " //\n" " //library.print_books();\n" " //\n" " //match library.oldest_book() {\n" " // Some(book) => println!(\"The oldest book is {}\", book.title),\n" " // None => println!(\"The library is empty!\"),\n" " //}\n" " //\n" " //println!(\"The library has {} books\", library.len());\n" " //library.print_books();\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: main\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_library_len() {\n" " let mut library = Library::new();\n" " assert_eq!(library.len(), 0);\n" " assert!(library.is_empty());\n" "\n" " library.add_book(Book::new(\"Lord of the Rings\", 1954));\n" " library.add_book(Book::new(\"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\", " "1865));\n" " assert_eq!(library.len(), 2);\n" " assert!(!library.is_empty());\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_library_is_empty() {\n" " let mut library = Library::new();\n" " assert!(library.is_empty());\n" "\n" " library.add_book(Book::new(\"Lord of the Rings\", 1954));\n" " assert!(!library.is_empty());\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_library_print_books() {\n" " let mut library = Library::new();\n" " library.add_book(Book::new(\"Lord of the Rings\", 1954));\n" " library.add_book(Book::new(\"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\", " "1865));\n" " // We could try and capture stdout, but let us just call the\n" " // method to start with.\n" " library.print_books();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_library_oldest_book() {\n" " let mut library = Library::new();\n" " assert!(library.oldest_book().is_none());\n" "\n" " library.add_book(Book::new(\"Lord of the Rings\", 1954));\n" " assert_eq!(\n" " library.oldest_book().map(|b| b.title.as_str()),\n" " Some(\"Lord of the Rings\")\n" " );\n" "\n" " library.add_book(Book::new(\"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\", " "1865));\n" " assert_eq!(\n" " library.oldest_book().map(|b| b.title.as_str()),\n" " Some(\"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\")\n" " );\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/solutions-morning.md:1 msgid "Day 2 Morning Exercises" msgstr "Dag 2 formiddagsøvelser" #: src/exercises/day-2/solutions-morning.md:5 msgid "([back to exercise](points-polygons.md))" msgstr "([tilbage til øvelsen](points-polygons.md))" #: src/exercises/day-2/solutions-morning.md:7 msgid "" "```rust\n" "// Copyright 2022 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]\n" "// ANCHOR: Point\n" "pub struct Point {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Point\n" " x: i32,\n" " y: i32,\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Point-impl\n" "impl Point {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Point-impl\n" " pub fn new(x: i32, y: i32) -> Point {\n" " Point { x, y }\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn magnitude(self) -> f64 {\n" " f64::from(self.x.pow(2) + self.y.pow(2)).sqrt()\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn dist(self, other: Point) -> f64 {\n" " (self - other).magnitude()\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl std::ops::Add for Point {\n" " type Output = Self;\n" "\n" " fn add(self, other: Self) -> Self::Output {\n" " Self {\n" " x: self.x + other.x,\n" " y: self.y + other.y,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl std::ops::Sub for Point {\n" " type Output = Self;\n" "\n" " fn sub(self, other: Self) -> Self::Output {\n" " Self {\n" " x: self.x - other.x,\n" " y: self.y - other.y,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Polygon\n" "pub struct Polygon {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Polygon\n" " points: Vec,\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Polygon-impl\n" "impl Polygon {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Polygon-impl\n" " pub fn new() -> Polygon {\n" " Polygon { points: Vec::new() }\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn add_point(&mut self, point: Point) {\n" " self.points.push(point);\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn left_most_point(&self) -> Option {\n" " self.points.iter().min_by_key(|p| p.x).copied()\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator {\n" " self.points.iter()\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn length(&self) -> f64 {\n" " if self.points.is_empty() {\n" " return 0.0;\n" " }\n" "\n" " let mut result = 0.0;\n" " let mut last_point = self.points[0];\n" " for point in &self.points[1..] {\n" " result += last_point.dist(*point);\n" " last_point = *point;\n" " }\n" " result += last_point.dist(self.points[0]);\n" " result\n" " // Alternatively, Iterator::zip() lets us iterate over the points as " "pairs\n" " // but we need to pair each point with the next one, and the last " "point\n" " // with the first point. The zip() iterator is finished as soon as " "one of \n" " // the source iterators is finished, a neat trick is to combine " "Iterator::cycle\n" " // with Iterator::skip to create the second iterator for the zip and " "using map \n" " // and sum to calculate the total length.\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Circle\n" "pub struct Circle {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Circle\n" " center: Point,\n" " radius: i32,\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Circle-impl\n" "impl Circle {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Circle-impl\n" " pub fn new(center: Point, radius: i32) -> Circle {\n" " Circle { center, radius }\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn circumference(&self) -> f64 {\n" " 2.0 * std::f64::consts::PI * f64::from(self.radius)\n" " }\n" "\n" " pub fn dist(&self, other: &Self) -> f64 {\n" " self.center.dist(other.center)\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Shape\n" "pub enum Shape {\n" " Polygon(Polygon),\n" " Circle(Circle),\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: Shape\n" "\n" "impl From for Shape {\n" " fn from(poly: Polygon) -> Self {\n" " Shape::Polygon(poly)\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl From for Shape {\n" " fn from(circle: Circle) -> Self {\n" " Shape::Circle(circle)\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Shape {\n" " pub fn perimeter(&self) -> f64 {\n" " match self {\n" " Shape::Polygon(poly) => poly.length(),\n" " Shape::Circle(circle) => circle.circumference(),\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: unit-tests\n" "#[cfg(test)]\n" "mod tests {\n" " use super::*;\n" "\n" " fn round_two_digits(x: f64) -> f64 {\n" " (x * 100.0).round() / 100.0\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_point_magnitude() {\n" " let p1 = Point::new(12, 13);\n" " assert_eq!(round_two_digits(p1.magnitude()), 17.69);\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_point_dist() {\n" " let p1 = Point::new(10, 10);\n" " let p2 = Point::new(14, 13);\n" " assert_eq!(round_two_digits(p1.dist(p2)), 5.00);\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_point_add() {\n" " let p1 = Point::new(16, 16);\n" " let p2 = p1 + Point::new(-4, 3);\n" " assert_eq!(p2, Point::new(12, 19));\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_polygon_left_most_point() {\n" " let p1 = Point::new(12, 13);\n" " let p2 = Point::new(16, 16);\n" "\n" " let mut poly = Polygon::new();\n" " poly.add_point(p1);\n" " poly.add_point(p2);\n" " assert_eq!(poly.left_most_point(), Some(p1));\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_polygon_iter() {\n" " let p1 = Point::new(12, 13);\n" " let p2 = Point::new(16, 16);\n" "\n" " let mut poly = Polygon::new();\n" " poly.add_point(p1);\n" " poly.add_point(p2);\n" "\n" " let points = poly.iter().cloned().collect::>();\n" " assert_eq!(points, vec![Point::new(12, 13), Point::new(16, 16)]);\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_shape_perimeters() {\n" " let mut poly = Polygon::new();\n" " poly.add_point(Point::new(12, 13));\n" " poly.add_point(Point::new(17, 11));\n" " poly.add_point(Point::new(16, 16));\n" " let shapes = vec![\n" " Shape::from(poly),\n" " Shape::from(Circle::new(Point::new(10, 20), 5)),\n" " ];\n" " let perimeters = shapes\n" " .iter()\n" " .map(Shape::perimeter)\n" " .map(round_two_digits)\n" " .collect::>();\n" " assert_eq!(perimeters, vec![15.48, 31.42]);\n" " }\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: unit-tests\n" "\n" "fn main() {}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/solutions-afternoon.md:1 msgid "Day 2 Afternoon Exercises" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-2/solutions-afternoon.md:5 msgid "([back to exercise](luhn.md))" msgstr "([tilbage til øvelsen](luhn.md))" #: src/exercises/day-2/solutions-afternoon.md:7 msgid "" "```rust\n" "// Copyright 2022 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: luhn\n" "pub fn luhn(cc_number: &str) -> bool {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: luhn\n" " let mut digits_seen = 0;\n" " let mut sum = 0;\n" " for (i, ch) in cc_number.chars().rev().filter(|&ch| ch != ' ')." "enumerate() {\n" " match ch.to_digit(10) {\n" " Some(d) => {\n" " sum += if i % 2 == 1 {\n" " let dd = d * 2;\n" " dd / 10 + dd % 10\n" " } else {\n" " d\n" " };\n" " digits_seen += 1;\n" " }\n" " None => return false,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " if digits_seen < 2 {\n" " return false;\n" " }\n" "\n" " sum % 10 == 0\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let cc_number = \"1234 5678 1234 5670\";\n" " println!(\n" " \"Is {cc_number} a valid credit card number? {}\",\n" " if luhn(cc_number) { \"yes\" } else { \"no\" }\n" " );\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: unit-tests\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_non_digit_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"foo\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_empty_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"\"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\" \"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\" \"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\" \"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_single_digit_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"0\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_two_digit_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(luhn(\" 0 0 \"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_valid_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(luhn(\"4263 9826 4026 9299\"));\n" " assert!(luhn(\"4539 3195 0343 6467\"));\n" " assert!(luhn(\"7992 7398 713\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_invalid_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"4223 9826 4026 9299\"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"4539 3195 0343 6476\"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"8273 1232 7352 0569\"));\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: unit-tests\n" "```" msgstr "" "```rust\n" "// Copyright 2022 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: luhn\n" "pub fn luhn(cc_number: &str) -> bool {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: luhn\n" " let mut digits_seen = 0;\n" " let mut sum = 0;\n" " for (i, ch) in cc_number.chars().rev().filter(|&ch| ch != ' ')." "enumerate() {\n" " match ch.to_digit(10) {\n" " Some(d) => {\n" " sum += if i % 2 == 1 {\n" " let dd = d * 2;\n" " dd / 10 + dd % 10\n" " } else {\n" " d\n" " };\n" " digits_seen += 1;\n" " }\n" " None => return false,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " if digits_seen < 2 {\n" " return false;\n" " }\n" "\n" " sum % 10 == 0\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let cc_number = \"1234 5678 1234 5670\";\n" " println!(\n" " \"Is {cc_number} a valid credit card number? {}\",\n" " if luhn(cc_number) { \"yes\" } else { \"no\" }\n" " );\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: unit-tests\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_non_digit_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"foo\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_empty_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"\"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\" \"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\" \"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\" \"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_single_digit_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"0\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_two_digit_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(luhn(\" 0 0 \"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_valid_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(luhn(\"4263 9826 4026 9299\"));\n" " assert!(luhn(\"4539 3195 0343 6467\"));\n" " assert!(luhn(\"7992 7398 713\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_invalid_cc_number() {\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"4223 9826 4026 9299\"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"4539 3195 0343 6476\"));\n" " assert!(!luhn(\"8273 1232 7352 0569\"));\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: unit-tests\n" "```" #: src/exercises/day-2/solutions-afternoon.md:99 msgid "([back to exercise](strings-iterators.md))" msgstr "([tilbage til øvelsen](strings-iterators.md))" #: src/exercises/day-2/solutions-afternoon.md:101 #, fuzzy msgid "" "```rust\n" "// Copyright 2022 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: prefix_matches\n" "pub fn prefix_matches(prefix: &str, request_path: &str) -> bool {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: prefix_matches\n" "\n" " let mut request_segments = request_path.split('/');\n" "\n" " for prefix_segment in prefix.split('/') {\n" " let Some(request_segment) = request_segments.next() else {\n" " return false;\n" " };\n" " if request_segment != prefix_segment && prefix_segment != \"*\" {\n" " return false;\n" " }\n" " }\n" " true\n" "\n" " // Alternatively, Iterator::zip() lets us iterate simultaneously over " "prefix\n" " // and request segments. The zip() iterator is finished as soon as one " "of\n" " // the source iterators is finished, but we need to iterate over all " "request\n" " // segments. A neat trick that makes zip() work is to use map() and " "chain()\n" " // to produce an iterator that returns Some(str) for each pattern " "segments,\n" " // and then returns None indefinitely.\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: unit-tests\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_matches_without_wildcard() {\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/publishers\"));\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/publishers/" "abc-123\"));\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/publishers/abc/" "books\"));\n" "\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1\"));\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/publishersBooks\"));\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/parent/" "publishers\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_matches_with_wildcard() {\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\n" " \"/v1/publishers/*/books\",\n" " \"/v1/publishers/foo/books\"\n" " ));\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\n" " \"/v1/publishers/*/books\",\n" " \"/v1/publishers/bar/books\"\n" " ));\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\n" " \"/v1/publishers/*/books\",\n" " \"/v1/publishers/foo/books/book1\"\n" " ));\n" "\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers/*/books\", \"/v1/" "publishers\"));\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\n" " \"/v1/publishers/*/books\",\n" " \"/v1/publishers/foo/booksByAuthor\"\n" " ));\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: unit-tests\n" "\n" "fn main() {}\n" "```" msgstr "" "```rust\n" "// Copyright 2022 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: prefix_matches\n" "pub fn prefix_matches(prefix: &str, request_path: &str) -> bool {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: prefix_matches\n" " let prefixes = prefix.split('/');\n" " let request_paths = request_path\n" " .split('/')\n" " .map(|p| Some(p))\n" " .chain(std::iter::once(None));\n" "\n" " for (prefix, request_path) in prefixes.zip(request_paths) {\n" " match request_path {\n" " Some(request_path) => {\n" " if (prefix != \"*\") && (prefix != request_path) {\n" " return false;\n" " }\n" " }\n" " None => return false,\n" " }\n" " }\n" " true\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: unit-tests\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_matches_without_wildcard() {\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/publishers\"));\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/publishers/" "abc-123\"));\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/publishers/abc/" "books\"));\n" "\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1\"));\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/publishersBooks\"));\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers\", \"/v1/parent/" "publishers\"));\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[test]\n" "fn test_matches_with_wildcard() {\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\n" " \"/v1/publishers/*/books\",\n" " \"/v1/publishers/foo/books\"\n" " ));\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\n" " \"/v1/publishers/*/books\",\n" " \"/v1/publishers/bar/books\"\n" " ));\n" " assert!(prefix_matches(\n" " \"/v1/publishers/*/books\",\n" " \"/v1/publishers/foo/books/book1\"\n" " ));\n" "\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\"/v1/publishers/*/books\", \"/v1/" "publishers\"));\n" " assert!(!prefix_matches(\n" " \"/v1/publishers/*/books\",\n" " \"/v1/publishers/foo/booksByAuthor\"\n" " ));\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: unit-tests\n" "\n" "fn main() {}\n" "```" #: src/exercises/day-3/solutions-morning.md:1 msgid "Day 3 Morning Exercise" msgstr "Dag 3 formiddagsøvelser" #: src/exercises/day-3/solutions-morning.md:5 msgid "([back to exercise](simple-gui.md))" msgstr "([tilbage til øvelsen](simple-gui.md))" #: src/exercises/day-3/solutions-morning.md:7 msgid "" "```rust\n" "// Copyright 2022 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: setup\n" "pub trait Widget {\n" " /// Natural width of `self`.\n" " fn width(&self) -> usize;\n" "\n" " /// Draw the widget into a buffer.\n" " fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write);\n" "\n" " /// Draw the widget on standard output.\n" " fn draw(&self) {\n" " let mut buffer = String::new();\n" " self.draw_into(&mut buffer);\n" " println!(\"{buffer}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub struct Label {\n" " label: String,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Label {\n" " fn new(label: &str) -> Label {\n" " Label {\n" " label: label.to_owned(),\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub struct Button {\n" " label: Label,\n" " callback: Box,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Button {\n" " fn new(label: &str, callback: Box) -> Button {\n" " Button {\n" " label: Label::new(label),\n" " callback,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "pub struct Window {\n" " title: String,\n" " widgets: Vec>,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Window {\n" " fn new(title: &str) -> Window {\n" " Window {\n" " title: title.to_owned(),\n" " widgets: Vec::new(),\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn add_widget(&mut self, widget: Box) {\n" " self.widgets.push(widget);\n" " }\n" "\n" " fn inner_width(&self) -> usize {\n" " std::cmp::max(\n" " self.title.chars().count(),\n" " self.widgets.iter().map(|w| w.width()).max().unwrap_or(0),\n" " )\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR_END: setup\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Window-width\n" "impl Widget for Window {\n" " fn width(&self) -> usize {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Window-width\n" " // Add 4 paddings for borders\n" " self.inner_width() + 4\n" " }\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Window-draw_into\n" " fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write) {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Window-draw_into\n" " let mut inner = String::new();\n" " for widget in &self.widgets {\n" " widget.draw_into(&mut inner);\n" " }\n" "\n" " let inner_width = self.inner_width();\n" "\n" " // TODO: after learning about error handling, you can change\n" " // draw_into to return Result<(), std::fmt::Error>. Then use\n" " // the ?-operator here instead of .unwrap().\n" " writeln!(buffer, \"+-{:- usize {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Button-width\n" " self.label.width() + 8 // add a bit of padding\n" " }\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Button-draw_into\n" " fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write) {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Button-draw_into\n" " let width = self.width();\n" " let mut label = String::new();\n" " self.label.draw_into(&mut label);\n" "\n" " writeln!(buffer, \"+{:- usize {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Label-width\n" " self.label\n" " .lines()\n" " .map(|line| line.chars().count())\n" " .max()\n" " .unwrap_or(0)\n" " }\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Label-draw_into\n" " fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write) {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Label-draw_into\n" " writeln!(buffer, \"{}\", &self.label).unwrap();\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: main\n" "fn main() {\n" " let mut window = Window::new(\"Rust GUI Demo 1.23\");\n" " window.add_widget(Box::new(Label::new(\"This is a small text GUI demo." "\")));\n" " window.add_widget(Box::new(Button::new(\n" " \"Click me!\",\n" " Box::new(|| println!(\"You clicked the button!\")),\n" " )));\n" " window.draw();\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: main\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/solutions-afternoon.md:1 msgid "Day 3 Afternoon Exercises" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/day-3/solutions-afternoon.md:5 msgid "([back to exercise](safe-ffi-wrapper.md))" msgstr "([tilbage til øvelsen](safe-ffi-wrapper.md))" #: src/exercises/day-3/solutions-afternoon.md:7 msgid "" "```rust\n" "// Copyright 2022 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: ffi\n" "mod ffi {\n" " use std::os::raw::{c_char, c_int};\n" " #[cfg(not(target_os = \"macos\"))]\n" " use std::os::raw::{c_long, c_ulong, c_ushort, c_uchar};\n" "\n" " // Opaque type. See https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/ffi.html.\n" " #[repr(C)]\n" " pub struct DIR {\n" " _data: [u8; 0],\n" " _marker: core::marker::PhantomData<(*mut u8, core::marker::" "PhantomPinned)>,\n" " }\n" "\n" " // Layout according to the Linux man page for readdir(3), where ino_t " "and\n" " // off_t are resolved according to the definitions in\n" " // /usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/{sys/types.h, bits/typesizes.h}.\n" " #[cfg(not(target_os = \"macos\"))]\n" " #[repr(C)]\n" " pub struct dirent {\n" " pub d_ino: c_ulong,\n" " pub d_off: c_long,\n" " pub d_reclen: c_ushort,\n" " pub d_type: c_uchar,\n" " pub d_name: [c_char; 256],\n" " }\n" "\n" " // Layout according to the macOS man page for dir(5).\n" " #[cfg(all(target_os = \"macos\"))]\n" " #[repr(C)]\n" " pub struct dirent {\n" " pub d_fileno: u64,\n" " pub d_seekoff: u64,\n" " pub d_reclen: u16,\n" " pub d_namlen: u16,\n" " pub d_type: u8,\n" " pub d_name: [c_char; 1024],\n" " }\n" "\n" " extern \"C\" {\n" " pub fn opendir(s: *const c_char) -> *mut DIR;\n" "\n" " #[cfg(not(all(target_os = \"macos\", target_arch = \"x86_64\")))]\n" " pub fn readdir(s: *mut DIR) -> *const dirent;\n" "\n" " // See https://github.com/rust-lang/libc/issues/414 and the section " "on\n" " // _DARWIN_FEATURE_64_BIT_INODE in the macOS man page for stat(2).\n" " //\n" " // \"Platforms that existed before these updates were available\" " "refers\n" " // to macOS (as opposed to iOS / wearOS / etc.) on Intel and " "PowerPC.\n" " #[cfg(all(target_os = \"macos\", target_arch = \"x86_64\"))]\n" " #[link_name = \"readdir$INODE64\"]\n" " pub fn readdir(s: *mut DIR) -> *const dirent;\n" "\n" " pub fn closedir(s: *mut DIR) -> c_int;\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "use std::ffi::{CStr, CString, OsStr, OsString};\n" "use std::os::unix::ffi::OsStrExt;\n" "\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct DirectoryIterator {\n" " path: CString,\n" " dir: *mut ffi::DIR,\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: ffi\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: DirectoryIterator\n" "impl DirectoryIterator {\n" " fn new(path: &str) -> Result {\n" " // Call opendir and return a Ok value if that worked,\n" " // otherwise return Err with a message.\n" " // ANCHOR_END: DirectoryIterator\n" " let path = CString::new(path).map_err(|err| format!(\"Invalid path: " "{err}\"))?;\n" " // SAFETY: path.as_ptr() cannot be NULL.\n" " let dir = unsafe { ffi::opendir(path.as_ptr()) };\n" " if dir.is_null() {\n" " Err(format!(\"Could not open {:?}\", path))\n" " } else {\n" " Ok(DirectoryIterator { path, dir })\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Iterator\n" "impl Iterator for DirectoryIterator {\n" " type Item = OsString;\n" " fn next(&mut self) -> Option {\n" " // Keep calling readdir until we get a NULL pointer back.\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Iterator\n" " // SAFETY: self.dir is never NULL.\n" " let dirent = unsafe { ffi::readdir(self.dir) };\n" " if dirent.is_null() {\n" " // We have reached the end of the directory.\n" " return None;\n" " }\n" " // SAFETY: dirent is not NULL and dirent.d_name is NUL\n" " // terminated.\n" " let d_name = unsafe { CStr::from_ptr((*dirent).d_name.as_ptr()) };\n" " let os_str = OsStr::from_bytes(d_name.to_bytes());\n" " Some(os_str.to_owned())\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Drop\n" "impl Drop for DirectoryIterator {\n" " fn drop(&mut self) {\n" " // Call closedir as needed.\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Drop\n" " if !self.dir.is_null() {\n" " // SAFETY: self.dir is not NULL.\n" " if unsafe { ffi::closedir(self.dir) } != 0 {\n" " panic!(\"Could not close {:?}\", self.path);\n" " }\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: main\n" "fn main() -> Result<(), String> {\n" " let iter = DirectoryIterator::new(\".\")?;\n" " println!(\"files: {:#?}\", iter.collect::>());\n" " Ok(())\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: main\n" "\n" "#[cfg(test)]\n" "mod tests {\n" " use super::*;\n" " use std::error::Error;\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_nonexisting_directory() {\n" " let iter = DirectoryIterator::new(\"no-such-directory\");\n" " assert!(iter.is_err());\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_empty_directory() -> Result<(), Box> {\n" " let tmp = tempfile::TempDir::new()?;\n" " let iter = DirectoryIterator::new(\n" " tmp.path().to_str().ok_or(\"Non UTF-8 character in path\")?,\n" " )?;\n" " let mut entries = iter.collect::>();\n" " entries.sort();\n" " assert_eq!(entries, &[\".\", \"..\"]);\n" " Ok(())\n" " }\n" "\n" " #[test]\n" " fn test_nonempty_directory() -> Result<(), Box> {\n" " let tmp = tempfile::TempDir::new()?;\n" " std::fs::write(tmp.path().join(\"foo.txt\"), \"The Foo " "Diaries\\n\")?;\n" " std::fs::write(tmp.path().join(\"bar.png\"), \"\\n\")?;\n" " std::fs::write(tmp.path().join(\"crab.rs\"), \"//! Crab\\n\")?;\n" " let iter = DirectoryIterator::new(\n" " tmp.path().to_str().ok_or(\"Non UTF-8 character in path\")?,\n" " )?;\n" " let mut entries = iter.collect::>();\n" " entries.sort();\n" " assert_eq!(entries, &[\".\", \"..\", \"bar.png\", \"crab.rs\", \"foo." "txt\"]);\n" " Ok(())\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/solutions-morning.md:1 msgid "Bare Metal Rust Morning Exercise" msgstr "Bar metal formiddagsøvelser" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/solutions-morning.md:5 msgid "([back to exercise](compass.md))" msgstr "([tilbage til øvelsen](compass.md))" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/solutions-morning.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "// Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: top\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "extern crate panic_halt as _;\n" "\n" "use core::fmt::Write;\n" "use cortex_m_rt::entry;\n" "// ANCHOR_END: top\n" "use core::cmp::{max, min};\n" "use lsm303agr::{AccelOutputDataRate, Lsm303agr, MagOutputDataRate};\n" "use microbit::display::blocking::Display;\n" "use microbit::hal::prelude::*;\n" "use microbit::hal::twim::Twim;\n" "use microbit::hal::uarte::{Baudrate, Parity, Uarte};\n" "use microbit::hal::Timer;\n" "use microbit::pac::twim0::frequency::FREQUENCY_A;\n" "use microbit::Board;\n" "\n" "const COMPASS_SCALE: i32 = 30000;\n" "const ACCELEROMETER_SCALE: i32 = 700;\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: main\n" "#[entry]\n" "fn main() -> ! {\n" " let board = Board::take().unwrap();\n" "\n" " // Configure serial port.\n" " let mut serial = Uarte::new(\n" " board.UARTE0,\n" " board.uart.into(),\n" " Parity::EXCLUDED,\n" " Baudrate::BAUD115200,\n" " );\n" "\n" " // Set up the I2C controller and Inertial Measurement Unit.\n" " // ANCHOR_END: main\n" " writeln!(serial, \"Setting up IMU...\").unwrap();\n" " let i2c = Twim::new(board.TWIM0, board.i2c_internal.into(), FREQUENCY_A::" "K100);\n" " let mut imu = Lsm303agr::new_with_i2c(i2c);\n" " imu.init().unwrap();\n" " imu.set_mag_odr(MagOutputDataRate::Hz50).unwrap();\n" " imu.set_accel_odr(AccelOutputDataRate::Hz50).unwrap();\n" " let mut imu = imu.into_mag_continuous().ok().unwrap();\n" "\n" " // Set up display and timer.\n" " let mut timer = Timer::new(board.TIMER0);\n" " let mut display = Display::new(board.display_pins);\n" "\n" " let mut mode = Mode::Compass;\n" " let mut button_pressed = false;\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: loop\n" " writeln!(serial, \"Ready.\").unwrap();\n" "\n" " loop {\n" " // Read compass data and log it to the serial port.\n" " // ANCHOR_END: loop\n" " while !(imu.mag_status().unwrap().xyz_new_data\n" " && imu.accel_status().unwrap().xyz_new_data)\n" " {}\n" " let compass_reading = imu.mag_data().unwrap();\n" " let accelerometer_reading = imu.accel_data().unwrap();\n" " writeln!(\n" " serial,\n" " \"{},{},{}\\t{},{},{}\",\n" " compass_reading.x,\n" " compass_reading.y,\n" " compass_reading.z,\n" " accelerometer_reading.x,\n" " accelerometer_reading.y,\n" " accelerometer_reading.z,\n" " )\n" " .unwrap();\n" "\n" " let mut image = [[0; 5]; 5];\n" " let (x, y) = match mode {\n" " Mode::Compass => (\n" " scale(-compass_reading.x, -COMPASS_SCALE, COMPASS_SCALE, 0, " "4) as usize,\n" " scale(compass_reading.y, -COMPASS_SCALE, COMPASS_SCALE, 0, " "4) as usize,\n" " ),\n" " Mode::Accelerometer => (\n" " scale(\n" " accelerometer_reading.x,\n" " -ACCELEROMETER_SCALE,\n" " ACCELEROMETER_SCALE,\n" " 0,\n" " 4,\n" " ) as usize,\n" " scale(\n" " -accelerometer_reading.y,\n" " -ACCELEROMETER_SCALE,\n" " ACCELEROMETER_SCALE,\n" " 0,\n" " 4,\n" " ) as usize,\n" " ),\n" " };\n" " image[y][x] = 255;\n" " display.show(&mut timer, image, 100);\n" "\n" " // If button A is pressed, switch to the next mode and briefly blink " "all LEDs on.\n" " if board.buttons.button_a.is_low().unwrap() {\n" " if !button_pressed {\n" " mode = mode.next();\n" " display.show(&mut timer, [[255; 5]; 5], 200);\n" " }\n" " button_pressed = true;\n" " } else {\n" " button_pressed = false;\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]\n" "enum Mode {\n" " Compass,\n" " Accelerometer,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Mode {\n" " fn next(self) -> Self {\n" " match self {\n" " Self::Compass => Self::Accelerometer,\n" " Self::Accelerometer => Self::Compass,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn scale(value: i32, min_in: i32, max_in: i32, min_out: i32, max_out: i32) -" "> i32 {\n" " let range_in = max_in - min_in;\n" " let range_out = max_out - min_out;\n" " cap(\n" " min_out + range_out * (value - min_in) / range_in,\n" " min_out,\n" " max_out,\n" " )\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn cap(value: i32, min_value: i32, max_value: i32) -> i32 {\n" " max(min_value, min(value, max_value))\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/solutions-afternoon.md:5 msgid "([back to exercise](rtc.md))" msgstr "([tilbage til øvelsen](rtc.md))" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/solutions-afternoon.md:7 msgid "`main.rs`:" msgstr "`main.rs`:" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/solutions-afternoon.md:9 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "// Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: top\n" "#![no_main]\n" "#![no_std]\n" "\n" "mod exceptions;\n" "mod logger;\n" "mod pl011;\n" "// ANCHOR_END: top\n" "mod pl031;\n" "\n" "use crate::pl031::Rtc;\n" "use arm_gic::gicv3::{IntId, Trigger};\n" "use arm_gic::{irq_enable, wfi};\n" "use chrono::{TimeZone, Utc};\n" "use core::hint::spin_loop;\n" "// ANCHOR: imports\n" "use crate::pl011::Uart;\n" "use arm_gic::gicv3::GicV3;\n" "use core::panic::PanicInfo;\n" "use log::{error, info, trace, LevelFilter};\n" "use smccc::psci::system_off;\n" "use smccc::Hvc;\n" "\n" "/// Base addresses of the GICv3.\n" "const GICD_BASE_ADDRESS: *mut u64 = 0x800_0000 as _;\n" "const GICR_BASE_ADDRESS: *mut u64 = 0x80A_0000 as _;\n" "\n" "/// Base address of the primary PL011 UART.\n" "const PL011_BASE_ADDRESS: *mut u32 = 0x900_0000 as _;\n" "// ANCHOR_END: imports\n" "\n" "/// Base address of the PL031 RTC.\n" "const PL031_BASE_ADDRESS: *mut u32 = 0x901_0000 as _;\n" "/// The IRQ used by the PL031 RTC.\n" "const PL031_IRQ: IntId = IntId::spi(2);\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: main\n" "#[no_mangle]\n" "extern \"C\" fn main(x0: u64, x1: u64, x2: u64, x3: u64) {\n" " // Safe because `PL011_BASE_ADDRESS` is the base address of a PL011 " "device,\n" " // and nothing else accesses that address range.\n" " let uart = unsafe { Uart::new(PL011_BASE_ADDRESS) };\n" " logger::init(uart, LevelFilter::Trace).unwrap();\n" "\n" " info!(\"main({:#x}, {:#x}, {:#x}, {:#x})\", x0, x1, x2, x3);\n" "\n" " // Safe because `GICD_BASE_ADDRESS` and `GICR_BASE_ADDRESS` are the " "base\n" " // addresses of a GICv3 distributor and redistributor respectively, and\n" " // nothing else accesses those address ranges.\n" " let mut gic = unsafe { GicV3::new(GICD_BASE_ADDRESS, " "GICR_BASE_ADDRESS) };\n" " gic.setup();\n" " // ANCHOR_END: main\n" "\n" " // Safe because `PL031_BASE_ADDRESS` is the base address of a PL031 " "device,\n" " // and nothing else accesses that address range.\n" " let mut rtc = unsafe { Rtc::new(PL031_BASE_ADDRESS) };\n" " let timestamp = rtc.read();\n" " let time = Utc.timestamp_opt(timestamp.into(), 0).unwrap();\n" " info!(\"RTC: {time}\");\n" "\n" " GicV3::set_priority_mask(0xff);\n" " gic.set_interrupt_priority(PL031_IRQ, 0x80);\n" " gic.set_trigger(PL031_IRQ, Trigger::Level);\n" " irq_enable();\n" " gic.enable_interrupt(PL031_IRQ, true);\n" "\n" " // Wait for 3 seconds, without interrupts.\n" " let target = timestamp + 3;\n" " rtc.set_match(target);\n" " info!(\n" " \"Waiting for {}\",\n" " Utc.timestamp_opt(target.into(), 0).unwrap()\n" " );\n" " trace!(\n" " \"matched={}, interrupt_pending={}\",\n" " rtc.matched(),\n" " rtc.interrupt_pending()\n" " );\n" " while !rtc.matched() {\n" " spin_loop();\n" " }\n" " trace!(\n" " \"matched={}, interrupt_pending={}\",\n" " rtc.matched(),\n" " rtc.interrupt_pending()\n" " );\n" " info!(\"Finished waiting\");\n" "\n" " // Wait another 3 seconds for an interrupt.\n" " let target = timestamp + 6;\n" " info!(\n" " \"Waiting for {}\",\n" " Utc.timestamp_opt(target.into(), 0).unwrap()\n" " );\n" " rtc.set_match(target);\n" " rtc.clear_interrupt();\n" " rtc.enable_interrupt(true);\n" " trace!(\n" " \"matched={}, interrupt_pending={}\",\n" " rtc.matched(),\n" " rtc.interrupt_pending()\n" " );\n" " while !rtc.interrupt_pending() {\n" " wfi();\n" " }\n" " trace!(\n" " \"matched={}, interrupt_pending={}\",\n" " rtc.matched(),\n" " rtc.interrupt_pending()\n" " );\n" " info!(\"Finished waiting\");\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: main_end\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[panic_handler]\n" "fn panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {\n" " error!(\"{info}\");\n" " system_off::().unwrap();\n" " loop {}\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: main_end\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/solutions-afternoon.md:149 msgid "`pl031.rs`:" msgstr "`pl031.rs`:" #: src/exercises/bare-metal/solutions-afternoon.md:151 msgid "" "```rust\n" "// Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "use core::ptr::{addr_of, addr_of_mut};\n" "\n" "#[repr(C, align(4))]\n" "struct Registers {\n" " /// Data register\n" " dr: u32,\n" " /// Match register\n" " mr: u32,\n" " /// Load register\n" " lr: u32,\n" " /// Control register\n" " cr: u8,\n" " _reserved0: [u8; 3],\n" " /// Interrupt Mask Set or Clear register\n" " imsc: u8,\n" " _reserved1: [u8; 3],\n" " /// Raw Interrupt Status\n" " ris: u8,\n" " _reserved2: [u8; 3],\n" " /// Masked Interrupt Status\n" " mis: u8,\n" " _reserved3: [u8; 3],\n" " /// Interrupt Clear Register\n" " icr: u8,\n" " _reserved4: [u8; 3],\n" "}\n" "\n" "/// Driver for a PL031 real-time clock.\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "pub struct Rtc {\n" " registers: *mut Registers,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl Rtc {\n" " /// Constructs a new instance of the RTC driver for a PL031 device at " "the\n" " /// given base address.\n" " ///\n" " /// # Safety\n" " ///\n" " /// The given base address must point to the MMIO control registers of " "a\n" " /// PL031 device, which must be mapped into the address space of the " "process\n" " /// as device memory and not have any other aliases.\n" " pub unsafe fn new(base_address: *mut u32) -> Self {\n" " Self {\n" " registers: base_address as *mut Registers,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Reads the current RTC value.\n" " pub fn read(&self) -> u32 {\n" " // Safe because we know that self.registers points to the control\n" " // registers of a PL031 device which is appropriately mapped.\n" " unsafe { addr_of!((*self.registers).dr).read_volatile() }\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Writes a match value. When the RTC value matches this then an " "interrupt\n" " /// will be generated (if it is enabled).\n" " pub fn set_match(&mut self, value: u32) {\n" " // Safe because we know that self.registers points to the control\n" " // registers of a PL031 device which is appropriately mapped.\n" " unsafe { addr_of_mut!((*self.registers).mr).write_volatile(value) }\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Returns whether the match register matches the RTC value, whether or " "not\n" " /// the interrupt is enabled.\n" " pub fn matched(&self) -> bool {\n" " // Safe because we know that self.registers points to the control\n" " // registers of a PL031 device which is appropriately mapped.\n" " let ris = unsafe { addr_of!((*self.registers).ris)." "read_volatile() };\n" " (ris & 0x01) != 0\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Returns whether there is currently an interrupt pending.\n" " ///\n" " /// This should be true if and only if `matched` returns true and the\n" " /// interrupt is masked.\n" " pub fn interrupt_pending(&self) -> bool {\n" " // Safe because we know that self.registers points to the control\n" " // registers of a PL031 device which is appropriately mapped.\n" " let ris = unsafe { addr_of!((*self.registers).mis)." "read_volatile() };\n" " (ris & 0x01) != 0\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Sets or clears the interrupt mask.\n" " ///\n" " /// When the mask is true the interrupt is enabled; when it is false " "the\n" " /// interrupt is disabled.\n" " pub fn enable_interrupt(&mut self, mask: bool) {\n" " let imsc = if mask { 0x01 } else { 0x00 };\n" " // Safe because we know that self.registers points to the control\n" " // registers of a PL031 device which is appropriately mapped.\n" " unsafe { addr_of_mut!((*self.registers).imsc)." "write_volatile(imsc) }\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Clears a pending interrupt, if any.\n" " pub fn clear_interrupt(&mut self) {\n" " // Safe because we know that self.registers points to the control\n" " // registers of a PL031 device which is appropriately mapped.\n" " unsafe { addr_of_mut!((*self.registers).icr).write_volatile(0x01) }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "// Safe because it just contains a pointer to device memory, which can be\n" "// accessed from any context.\n" "unsafe impl Send for Rtc {}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-morning.md:1 msgid "Concurrency Morning Exercise" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-morning.md:5 msgid "([back to exercise](dining-philosophers.md))" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-morning.md:7 msgid "" "```rust\n" "// Copyright 2022 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Philosopher\n" "use std::sync::{mpsc, Arc, Mutex};\n" "use std::thread;\n" "use std::time::Duration;\n" "\n" "struct Fork;\n" "\n" "struct Philosopher {\n" " name: String,\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Philosopher\n" " left_fork: Arc>,\n" " right_fork: Arc>,\n" " thoughts: mpsc::SyncSender,\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Philosopher-think\n" "impl Philosopher {\n" " fn think(&self) {\n" " self.thoughts\n" " .send(format!(\"Eureka! {} has a new idea!\", &self.name))\n" " .unwrap();\n" " }\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Philosopher-think\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Philosopher-eat\n" " fn eat(&self) {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Philosopher-eat\n" " println!(\"{} is trying to eat\", &self.name);\n" " let left = self.left_fork.lock().unwrap();\n" " let right = self.right_fork.lock().unwrap();\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Philosopher-eat-end\n" " println!(\"{} is eating...\", &self.name);\n" " thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(10));\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "static PHILOSOPHERS: &[&str] =\n" " &[\"Socrates\", \"Plato\", \"Aristotle\", \"Thales\", \"Pythagoras\"];\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Philosopher-eat-end\n" " let (tx, rx) = mpsc::sync_channel(10);\n" "\n" " let forks = (0..PHILOSOPHERS.len())\n" " .map(|_| Arc::new(Mutex::new(Fork)))\n" " .collect::>();\n" "\n" " for i in 0..forks.len() {\n" " let tx = tx.clone();\n" " let mut left_fork = Arc::clone(&forks[i]);\n" " let mut right_fork = Arc::clone(&forks[(i + 1) % forks.len()]);\n" "\n" " // To avoid a deadlock, we have to break the symmetry\n" " // somewhere. This will swap the forks without deinitializing\n" " // either of them.\n" " if i == forks.len() - 1 {\n" " std::mem::swap(&mut left_fork, &mut right_fork);\n" " }\n" "\n" " let philosopher = Philosopher {\n" " name: PHILOSOPHERS[i].to_string(),\n" " thoughts: tx,\n" " left_fork,\n" " right_fork,\n" " };\n" "\n" " thread::spawn(move || {\n" " for _ in 0..100 {\n" " philosopher.eat();\n" " philosopher.think();\n" " }\n" " });\n" " }\n" "\n" " drop(tx);\n" " for thought in rx {\n" " println!(\"{thought}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-morning.md:104 #, fuzzy msgid "Link Checker" msgstr "Flertrådet linktjekker" #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-morning.md:106 #, fuzzy msgid "([back to exercise](link-checker.md))" msgstr "([tilbage til øvelsen](luhn.md))" #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-morning.md:108 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "// Copyright 2022 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "use std::{sync::Arc, sync::Mutex, sync::mpsc, thread};\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: setup\n" "use reqwest::{blocking::Client, Url};\n" "use scraper::{Html, Selector};\n" "use thiserror::Error;\n" "\n" "#[derive(Error, Debug)]\n" "enum Error {\n" " #[error(\"request error: {0}\")]\n" " ReqwestError(#[from] reqwest::Error),\n" " #[error(\"bad http response: {0}\")]\n" " BadResponse(String),\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: setup\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: visit_page\n" "#[derive(Debug)]\n" "struct CrawlCommand {\n" " url: Url,\n" " extract_links: bool,\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn visit_page(client: &Client, command: &CrawlCommand) -> Result, " "Error> {\n" " println!(\"Checking {:#}\", command.url);\n" " let response = client.get(command.url.clone()).send()?;\n" " if !response.status().is_success() {\n" " return Err(Error::BadResponse(response.status().to_string()));\n" " }\n" "\n" " let mut link_urls = Vec::new();\n" " if !command.extract_links {\n" " return Ok(link_urls);\n" " }\n" "\n" " let base_url = response.url().to_owned();\n" " let body_text = response.text()?;\n" " let document = Html::parse_document(&body_text);\n" "\n" " let selector = Selector::parse(\"a\").unwrap();\n" " let href_values = document\n" " .select(&selector)\n" " .filter_map(|element| element.value().attr(\"href\"));\n" " for href in href_values {\n" " match base_url.join(href) {\n" " Ok(link_url) => {\n" " link_urls.push(link_url);\n" " }\n" " Err(err) => {\n" " println!(\"On {base_url:#}: ignored unparsable {href:?}: " "{err}\");\n" " }\n" " }\n" " }\n" " Ok(link_urls)\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: visit_page\n" "\n" "struct CrawlState {\n" " domain: String,\n" " visited_pages: std::collections::HashSet,\n" "}\n" "\n" "impl CrawlState {\n" " fn new(start_url: &Url) -> CrawlState {\n" " let mut visited_pages = std::collections::HashSet::new();\n" " visited_pages.insert(start_url.as_str().to_string());\n" " CrawlState {\n" " domain: start_url.domain().unwrap().to_string(),\n" " visited_pages,\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Determine whether links within the given page should be extracted.\n" " fn should_extract_links(&self, url: &Url) -> bool {\n" " let Some(url_domain) = url.domain() else {\n" " return false;\n" " };\n" " url_domain == self.domain\n" " }\n" "\n" " /// Mark the given page as visited, returning true if it had already\n" " /// been visited.\n" " fn mark_visited(&mut self, url: &Url) -> bool {\n" " self.visited_pages.insert(url.as_str().to_string())\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "type CrawlResult = Result, (Url, Error)>;\n" "fn spawn_crawler_threads(\n" " command_receiver: mpsc::Receiver,\n" " result_sender: mpsc::Sender,\n" " thread_count: u32,\n" ") {\n" " let command_receiver = Arc::new(Mutex::new(command_receiver));\n" "\n" " for _ in 0..thread_count {\n" " let result_sender = result_sender.clone();\n" " let command_receiver = command_receiver.clone();\n" " thread::spawn(move || {\n" " let client = Client::new();\n" " loop {\n" " let command_result = {\n" " let receiver_guard = command_receiver.lock().unwrap();\n" " receiver_guard.recv()\n" " };\n" " let Ok(crawl_command) = command_result else {\n" " // The sender got dropped. No more commands coming in.\n" " break;\n" " };\n" " let crawl_result = match visit_page(&client, &crawl_command) " "{\n" " Ok(link_urls) => Ok(link_urls),\n" " Err(error) => Err((crawl_command.url, error)),\n" " };\n" " result_sender.send(crawl_result).unwrap();\n" " }\n" " });\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn control_crawl(\n" " start_url: Url,\n" " command_sender: mpsc::Sender,\n" " result_receiver: mpsc::Receiver,\n" ") -> Vec {\n" " let mut crawl_state = CrawlState::new(&start_url);\n" " let start_command = CrawlCommand { url: start_url, extract_links: " "true };\n" " command_sender.send(start_command).unwrap();\n" " let mut pending_urls = 1;\n" "\n" " let mut bad_urls = Vec::new();\n" " while pending_urls > 0 {\n" " let crawl_result = result_receiver.recv().unwrap();\n" " pending_urls -= 1;\n" "\n" " match crawl_result {\n" " Ok(link_urls) => {\n" " for url in link_urls {\n" " if crawl_state.mark_visited(&url) {\n" " let extract_links = crawl_state." "should_extract_links(&url);\n" " let crawl_command = CrawlCommand { url, " "extract_links };\n" " command_sender.send(crawl_command).unwrap();\n" " pending_urls += 1;\n" " }\n" " }\n" " }\n" " Err((url, error)) => {\n" " bad_urls.push(url);\n" " println!(\"Got crawling error: {:#}\", error);\n" " continue;\n" " }\n" " }\n" " }\n" " bad_urls\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn check_links(start_url: Url) -> Vec {\n" " let (result_sender, result_receiver) = mpsc::channel::();\n" " let (command_sender, command_receiver) = mpsc::channel::" "();\n" " spawn_crawler_threads(command_receiver, result_sender, 16);\n" " control_crawl(start_url, command_sender, result_receiver)\n" "}\n" "\n" "fn main() {\n" " let start_url = reqwest::Url::parse(\"https://www.google.org\")." "unwrap();\n" " let bad_urls = check_links(start_url);\n" " println!(\"Bad URLs: {:#?}\", bad_urls);\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-afternoon.md:1 msgid "Concurrency Afternoon Exercise" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-afternoon.md:5 msgid "([back to exercise](dining-philosophers-async.md))" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-afternoon.md:7 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "// Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Philosopher\n" "use std::sync::Arc;\n" "use tokio::time;\n" "use tokio::sync::mpsc::{self, Sender};\n" "use tokio::sync::Mutex;\n" "\n" "struct Fork;\n" "\n" "struct Philosopher {\n" " name: String,\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Philosopher\n" " left_fork: Arc>,\n" " right_fork: Arc>,\n" " thoughts: Sender,\n" "}\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: Philosopher-think\n" "impl Philosopher {\n" " async fn think(&self) {\n" " self.thoughts\n" " .send(format!(\"Eureka! {} has a new idea!\", &self.name))." "await\n" " .unwrap();\n" " }\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Philosopher-think\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Philosopher-eat\n" " async fn eat(&self) {\n" " // Pick up forks...\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Philosopher-eat\n" " let _first_lock = self.left_fork.lock().await;\n" " // Add a delay before picking the second fork to allow the " "execution\n" " // to transfer to another task\n" " time::sleep(time::Duration::from_millis(1)).await;\n" " let _second_lock = self.right_fork.lock().await;\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR: Philosopher-eat-body\n" " println!(\"{} is eating...\", &self.name);\n" " time::sleep(time::Duration::from_millis(5)).await;\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Philosopher-eat-body\n" "\n" " // The locks are dropped here\n" " // ANCHOR: Philosopher-eat-end\n" " }\n" "}\n" "\n" "static PHILOSOPHERS: &[&str] =\n" " &[\"Socrates\", \"Plato\", \"Aristotle\", \"Thales\", \"Pythagoras\"];\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: Philosopher-eat-end\n" " // Create forks\n" " let mut forks = vec![];\n" " (0..PHILOSOPHERS.len()).for_each(|_| forks.push(Arc::new(Mutex::" "new(Fork))));\n" "\n" " // Create philosophers\n" " let (philosophers, mut rx) = {\n" " let mut philosophers = vec![];\n" " let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel(10);\n" " for (i, name) in PHILOSOPHERS.iter().enumerate() {\n" " let left_fork = Arc::clone(&forks[i]);\n" " let right_fork = Arc::clone(&forks[(i + 1) % PHILOSOPHERS." "len()]);\n" " // To avoid a deadlock, we have to break the symmetry\n" " // somewhere. This will swap the forks without deinitializing\n" " // either of them.\n" " if i == 0 {\n" " std::mem::swap(&mut left_fork, &mut right_fork);\n" " }\n" " philosophers.push(Philosopher {\n" " name: name.to_string(),\n" " left_fork,\n" " right_fork,\n" " thoughts: tx.clone(),\n" " });\n" " }\n" " (philosophers, rx)\n" " // tx is dropped here, so we don't need to explicitly drop it later\n" " };\n" "\n" " // Make them think and eat\n" " for phil in philosophers {\n" " tokio::spawn(async move {\n" " for _ in 0..100 {\n" " phil.think().await;\n" " phil.eat().await;\n" " }\n" " });\n" "\n" " }\n" "\n" " // Output their thoughts\n" " while let Some(thought) = rx.recv().await {\n" " println!(\"Here is a thought: {thought}\");\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-afternoon.md:121 #, fuzzy msgid "([back to exercise](chat-app.md))" msgstr "([tilbage til øvelsen](rtc.md))" #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-afternoon.md:125 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "// Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: setup\n" "use futures_util::sink::SinkExt;\n" "use std::error::Error;\n" "use std::net::SocketAddr;\n" "use tokio::net::{TcpListener, TcpStream};\n" "use tokio::sync::broadcast::{channel, Sender};\n" "use tokio_websockets::{Message, ServerBuilder, WebsocketStream};\n" "// ANCHOR_END: setup\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: handle_connection\n" "async fn handle_connection(\n" " addr: SocketAddr,\n" " mut ws_stream: WebsocketStream,\n" " bcast_tx: Sender,\n" ") -> Result<(), Box> {\n" " // ANCHOR_END: handle_connection\n" "\n" " ws_stream\n" " .send(Message::text(\"Welcome to chat! Type a message\".into()))\n" " .await?;\n" " let mut bcast_rx = bcast_tx.subscribe();\n" "\n" " // A continuous loop for concurrently performing two tasks: (1) " "receiving\n" " // messages from `ws_stream` and broadcasting them, and (2) receiving\n" " // messages on `bcast_rx` and sending them to the client.\n" " loop {\n" " tokio::select! {\n" " incoming = ws_stream.next() => {\n" " match incoming {\n" " Some(Ok(msg)) => {\n" " let msg = msg.as_text()?;\n" " println!(\"From client {addr:?} {msg:?}\");\n" " bcast_tx.send(msg.into())?;\n" " }\n" " Some(Err(err)) => return Err(err.into()),\n" " None => return Ok(()),\n" " }\n" " }\n" " msg = bcast_rx.recv() => {\n" " ws_stream.send(Message::text(msg?)).await?;\n" " }\n" " }\n" " }\n" " // ANCHOR: main\n" "}\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() -> Result<(), Box> {\n" " let (bcast_tx, _) = channel(16);\n" "\n" " let listener = TcpListener::bind(\"127.0.0.1:2000\").await?;\n" " println!(\"listening on port 2000\");\n" "\n" " loop {\n" " let (socket, addr) = listener.accept().await?;\n" " println!(\"New connection from {addr:?}\");\n" " let bcast_tx = bcast_tx.clone();\n" " tokio::spawn(async move {\n" " // Wrap the raw TCP stream into a websocket.\n" " let ws_stream = ServerBuilder::new().accept(socket).await?;\n" "\n" " handle_connection(addr, ws_stream, bcast_tx).await\n" " });\n" " }\n" "}\n" "// ANCHOR_END: main\n" "```" msgstr "" #: src/exercises/concurrency/solutions-afternoon.md:210 msgid "" "```rust,compile_fail\n" "// Copyright 2023 Google LLC\n" "//\n" "// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\n" "// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.\n" "// You may obtain a copy of the License at\n" "//\n" "// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n" "//\n" "// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n" "// distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\n" "// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.\n" "// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and\n" "// limitations under the License.\n" "\n" "// ANCHOR: setup\n" "use futures_util::SinkExt;\n" "use http::Uri;\n" "use tokio::io::{AsyncBufReadExt, BufReader};\n" "use tokio_websockets::{ClientBuilder, Message};\n" "\n" "#[tokio::main]\n" "async fn main() -> Result<(), tokio_websockets::Error> {\n" " let mut ws_stream = ClientBuilder::from_uri(Uri::" "from_static(\"ws://127.0.0.1:2000\"))\n" " .connect()\n" " .await?;\n" "\n" " let stdin = tokio::io::stdin();\n" " let mut stdin = BufReader::new(stdin).lines();\n" "\n" " // ANCHOR_END: setup\n" " // Continuous loop for concurrently sending and receiving messages.\n" " loop {\n" " tokio::select! {\n" " incoming = ws_stream.next() => {\n" " match incoming {\n" " Some(Ok(msg)) => println!(\"From server: {}\", msg." "as_text()?),\n" " Some(Err(err)) => return Err(err.into()),\n" " None => return Ok(()),\n" " }\n" " }\n" " res = stdin.next_line() => {\n" " match res {\n" " Ok(None) => return Ok(()),\n" " Ok(Some(line)) => ws_stream.send(Message::text(line." "to_string())).await?,\n" " Err(err) => return Err(err.into()),\n" " }\n" " }\n" "\n" " }\n" " }\n" "}\n" "```" msgstr ""