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docs(exercises): updated all exercises readme files
all exercises readme files now have a unified structure and a description
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### Clippy
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# Clippy
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The Clippy tool is a collection of lints to analyze your code so you can catch common mistakes and improve your Rust code.
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If you used the installation script for Rustlings, Clippy should be already installed.
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If not you can install it manually via `rustup component add clippy`.
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For more information about Clippy lints, please see [their documentation page](https://rust-lang.github.io/rust-clippy/master/).
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## Further information
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- [GitHub Repository](https://github.com/rust-lang/rust-clippy).
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### Collections
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# Collections
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Rust’s standard library includes a number of very useful data
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structures called collections. Most other data types represent one
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@ -17,4 +17,6 @@ structures that are used very often in Rust programs:
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You may also know this by the names [*unordered map* in C++](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/container/unordered_map),
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[*dictionary* in Python](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#dictionaries) or an *associative array* in other languages.
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[Rust book chapter](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/ch08-01-vectors.html)
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## Further information
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- [Storing Lists of Values with Vectors](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/ch08-01-vectors.html)
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### Type conversions
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# Type conversions
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Rust offers a multitude of ways to convert a value of a given type into another type.
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These should be the main ways ***within the standard library*** to convert data into your desired types.
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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These are not directly covered in the book, but the standard library has great documentation for [conversions here](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/index.html). The `FromStr` trait is also covered [here](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/str/trait.FromStr.html).
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These are not directly covered in the book, but the standard library has a great documentation for it.
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- [conversions](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/index.html)
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- [`FromStr` trait](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/str/trait.FromStr.html)
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### Enums
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# Enums
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Rust allows you to define types called "enums" which enumerate possible values.
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Enums are a feature in many languages, but their capabilities differ in each language. Rust’s enums are most similar to algebraic data types in functional languages, such as F#, OCaml, and Haskell.
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Useful in combination with enums is Rust's "pattern matching" facility, which makes it easy to run different code for different values of an enumeration.
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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- [Enums](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch06-00-enums.html)
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- [Pattern syntax](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html)
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For this exercise check out the sections:
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# Error handling
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Most errors aren’t serious enough to require the program to stop entirely.
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Sometimes, when a function fails, it’s for a reason that you can easily interpret and respond to.
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For example, if you try to open a file and that operation fails because the file doesn’t exist, you might want to create the file instead of terminating the process.
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## Further information
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- [Error Handling](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html)
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- [Generics](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch10-01-syntax.html)
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of the Rust Book.
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or alternatively, check out the sections:
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- [Result](https://doc.rust-lang.org/rust-by-example/error/result.html)
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- [Boxing errors](https://doc.rust-lang.org/rust-by-example/error/multiple_error_types/boxing_errors.html)
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of the Rust By Example Book.
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### Functions
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# Functions
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Here, you'll learn how to write functions and how Rust's compiler can trace things way back.
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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- [How Functions Work](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch03-03-how-functions-work.html)
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### Generics
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# Generics
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In this section you'll learn about saving yourself many lines of code with generics!
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Generics is the topic of generalizing types and functionalities to broader cases.
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This is extremely useful for reducing code duplication in many ways, but can call for rather involving syntax.
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Namely, being generic requires taking great care to specify over which types a generic type is actually considered valid.
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The simplest and most common use of generics is for type parameters.
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### Book Sections
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## Further information
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- [Generic Data Types](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/ch10-01-syntax.html)
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- [Bounds](https://doc.rust-lang.org/rust-by-example/generics/bounds.html)
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### If
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# If
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`if`, the most basic type of control flow, is what you'll learn here.
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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- [Control Flow - if expressions](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch03-05-control-flow.html#if-expressions)
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### Macros
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# Macros
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Rust's macro system is very powerful, but also kind of difficult to wrap your
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head around. We're not going to teach you how to write your own fully-featured
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macros. Instead, we'll show you how to use and create them.
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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- [Macros](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch19-06-macros.html)
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- [The Little Book of Rust Macros](https://danielkeep.github.io/tlborm/book/index.html)
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### Modules
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# Modules
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In this section we'll give you an introduction to Rust's module system.
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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- [The Module System](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.html)
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### Move Semantics
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# Move Semantics
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These exercises are adapted from [pnkfelix](https://github.com/pnkfelix)'s [Rust Tutorial](https://pnkfelix.github.io/rust-examples-icfp2014/) -- Thank you Felix!!!
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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For this section, the book links are especially important.
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### Option
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# Option
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#### Book Sections
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Type Option represents an optional value: every Option is either Some and contains a value, or None, and does not.
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Option types are very common in Rust code, as they have a number of uses:
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- Initial values
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- Return values for functions that are not defined over their entire input range (partial functions)
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- Return value for otherwise reporting simple errors, where None is returned on error
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- Optional struct fields
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- Struct fields that can be loaned or "taken"
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- Optional function arguments
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- Nullable pointers
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- Swapping things out of difficult situations
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To learn about Option<T>, check out these links:
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## Further Information
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- [Option Enum Format](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/ch10-01-syntax.html#in-enum-definitions)
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- [Option Module Documentation](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/option/)
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### Primitive Types
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# Primitive Types
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Rust has a couple of basic types that are directly implemented into the
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compiler. In this section, we'll go through the most important ones.
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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- [Data Types](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/ch03-02-data-types.html)
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- [The Slice Type](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/ch04-03-slices.html)
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For the Box exercise check out the chapter [Using Box to Point to Data on the Heap](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch15-01-box.html).
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# Standard library types
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For the Arc exercise check out the chapter [Shared-State Concurrency](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch16-03-shared-state.html) of the Rust Book.
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This section will teach you about Box, Shared-State Concurrency and Iterators.
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For the Iterator exercise check out the chapters [Iterator](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch13-02-iterators.html) of the Rust Book and the [Iterator documentation](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/std/iter/).
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## Further information
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- [Using Box to Point to Data on the Heap](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch15-01-box.html)
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- [Shared-State Concurrency](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch16-03-shared-state.html)
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- [Iterator](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch13-02-iterators.html)
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- [Iterator documentation](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/std/iter/)
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### Strings
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# Strings
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Rust has two string types, a string slice (`&str`) and an owned string (`String`).
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We're not going to dictate when you should use which one, but we'll show you how
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to identify and create them, as well as use them.
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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- [Strings](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch08-02-strings.html)
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### Structs
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# Structs
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Rust has three struct types: a classic C struct, a tuple struct, and a unit struct.
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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- [Structures](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch05-01-defining-structs.html)
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- [Method Syntax](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch05-03-method-syntax.html)
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### Tests
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# Tests
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Going out of order from the book to cover tests -- many of the following exercises will ask you to make tests pass!
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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- [Writing Tests](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch11-01-writing-tests.html)
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For this exercise check out the [Dining Philosophers example](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.4.0/book/dining-philosophers.html) and the chapter [Concurrency](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch16-01-threads.html) of the Rust Book.
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# Threads
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In most current operating systems, an executed program’s code is run in a process, and the operating system manages multiple processes at once.
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Within your program, you can also have independent parts that run simultaneously. The features that run these independent parts are called threads.
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## Further information
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- [Dining Philosophers example](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.4.0/book/dining-philosophers.html)
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- [Using Threads to Run Code Simultaneously](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch16-01-threads.html)
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### Traits
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# Traits
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A trait is a collection of methods.
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In this way, traits are somewhat similar to Java interfaces and C++ abstract classes.
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Some additional common Rust traits include:
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+ `Clone` (the `clone` method),
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+ `Display` (which allows formatted display via `{}`), and
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+ `Debug` (which allows formatted display via `{:?}`).
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- `Clone` (the `clone` method)
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- `Display` (which allows formatted display via `{}`)
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- `Debug` (which allows formatted display via `{:?}`)
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Because traits indicate shared behavior between data types, they are useful when writing generics.
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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- [Traits](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch10-02-traits.html)
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### Variables
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# Variables
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Here you'll learn about simple variables.
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In Rust, variables are immutable by default.
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When a variable is immutable, once a value is bound to a name, you can’t change that value.
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You can make them mutable by adding mut in front of the variable name.
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#### Book Sections
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## Further information
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- [Variables and Mutability](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html)
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